John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir ( / ˈ b ʌ x ən / ; born 26 August 1875; died 11 February 1940) was a Scottish writer, historian, British Army officer, and politician who worked as Governor General of Canada, the 15th person to hold this role since Canada became a united country.
As a young man, Buchan wrote poetry and stories, both fiction and non-fiction. He published his first novel in 1895 and later wrote more than 100 books, with The Thirty-Nine Steps being his most famous. He studied at Glasgow and Oxford universities and worked as a lawyer. In 1901, he served as a private secretary to Lord Milner in southern Africa near the end of the Boer War. He returned to England in 1903 and continued working as a lawyer and journalist. In 1907, he left the legal profession to join Thomas Nelson and Sons, a publishing company. During World War I, he worked as Director of Information in 1917 and later became Head of Intelligence at the newly created Ministry of Information. In 1927, he was elected as a Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities.
In 1935, King George V, with advice from Canadian Prime Minister R. B. Bennett, chose Buchan to replace the Earl of Bessborough as Governor General of Canada. Two months later, the king gave Buchan the title of Baron Tweedsmuir. Buchan held this position until his death in 1940. He supported Canadian unity and helped strengthen Canada’s independence in government and culture. After his death, Buchan received a state funeral in Canada, and his ashes were later taken to the United Kingdom.
Early life and education
John Buchan was born in Perth, Scotland, at a house now called York Place 18–20, which is named after him. He was the first child of John Buchan, a minister in the Free Church of Scotland, and Helen Jane Buchan (born Masterton). He grew up in Kirkcaldy, Fife, and spent many summers with his mother’s parents in Broughton, a town in the Scottish Borders. There, he developed an interest in walking and exploring the natural beauty of the area, which later appeared in his books. Many of his novels feature a character named Sir Edward Leithen, inspired by Leithen Water, a stream that flows into the River Tweed.
After moving to Glasgow, Buchan attended Hutchesons' Boys' Grammar School. At 17, he earned a scholarship to study at the University of Glasgow, where he studied classical literature, wrote poetry, and published his first works. Later, he studied the Classics at Brasenose College, Oxford, supported by a Junior Hulme scholarship in 1895. In his third year, he received a Senior Hulme scholarship, which helped him financially. At Oxford, he became friends with Raymond Asquith, Aubrey Herbert, and Tommy Nelson. He won awards for his essays and poetry, including the Stanhope essay prize in 1897 and the Newdigate Prize for poetry in 1898. He also led the Oxford Union and published several works, such as a book of short stories (Grey Weather, 1899) and three of his early adventure novels (John Burnet of Barns, 1898; A Lost Lady of Old Years, 1899; The Half-Hearted, 1900).
In 1900, shortly after graduating from Oxford, Buchan had his first portrait painted by a young artist named Sholto Johnstone Douglas.
Author, journalist, war, and politics
After finishing school at Oxford, Buchan studied law and became a lawyer in June 1901 as part of the Middle Temple. In September 1901, he traveled to South Africa to work as a private secretary to Alfred Milner, who held several important roles, including High Commissioner for Southern Africa and Governor of the Cape Colony. This made Buchan a member of Milner's group, known as the Kindergarten. During this time, Buchan became familiar with South Africa, a place that later influenced his writing. He returned to London in 1903 and continued his work as a lawyer. In 1905, he wrote a book about the legal rules for taxing foreign income. In December 1906, he joined Thomas Nelson & Sons, a publishing company, and also worked as a deputy editor for The Spectator. On July 15, 1907, Buchan married Susan Charlotte Grosvenor, the daughter of the Hon. Norman Grosvenor, who was the son of the 1st Lord Ebury and a cousin of the Duke of Westminster. Together, they had four children: Alice, John, William, and Alastair.
In 1910, Buchan wrote Prester John, an adventure novel set in South Africa. Around this time, he began suffering from duodenal ulcers, a medical condition that later appeared in one of his fictional characters. He also entered politics and was chosen as a Unionist candidate for the Scottish Borders seat of Peebles and Selkirk in March 1911. While he supported some Liberal ideas, such as free trade and reducing the power of the House of Lords, he opposed Home Rule in Ireland and criticized Liberal politicians for promoting class conflict.
When World War I began, Buchan started writing a history of the war for Nelson's publishers, which grew to 24 volumes by the end of the war. He worked in the Foreign Office and briefly served as a war correspondent for The Times in France in 1915. That same year, his most famous novel, The Thirty-Nine Steps, a spy-thriller set before the war, was published. The story’s hero, Richard Hannay, was inspired by Edmund Ironside, a friend Buchan had in South Africa. A follow-up novel, Greenmantle, was published the next year. In June 1916, Buchan was sent to the Western Front to help the British Army’s Intelligence Section draft press reports. Upon arrival, he was given the rank of second lieutenant in the Intelligence Corps.
In 1917, the War Cabinet, led by David Lloyd George, appointed Buchan as Director of Information, a role that involved leading Britain’s efforts to influence public opinion. In early 1918, he became head of a Department of Intelligence within the new Ministry of Information, which was led by Lord Beaverbrook. Throughout the war, Buchan continued writing volumes of the History of the War. Although he had close ties to military and government leaders, he occasionally criticized the British Army and government decisions. He praised Winston Churchill’s work during the war but was sometimes blamed for decisions made by others.
Beaverbrook once asked Buchan to meet with Herbert Vivian, a journalist with Jacobite sympathies, and admitted to supporting Jacobite ideas. Buchan was not fully committed to the Jacobite cause but wrote romantic stories about that era, such as A Lost Lady of Old Years (1899), A Book of Escapes and Hurried Journeys (1922), and Midwinter (1923).
After the war ended, Buchan focused on writing historical books, thrillers, and novels. In 1920, he moved to Elsfield, Oxfordshire, and became president of the Scottish Historical Society and a trustee of the National Library of Scotland. He also stayed connected to universities. Robert Graves, who lived nearby, said Buchan recommended him for a teaching job at Cairo University. In 1927, Buchan was elected as a Unionist Party Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities. Politically, he supported Scotland’s role within the British Empire and the United Kingdom. He also reflected on the effects of the Great Depression in Scotland, saying, “We do not want to be like the Greeks, powerful and prosperous wherever we settle, but with a dead Greece behind us.” Buchan was deeply influenced by John Morley’s Life of Gladstone, which he read during the early years of World War II. He believed Gladstone had taught people to fight materialism, complacency, and authoritarianism. Later, he told friends that he was becoming a Gladstonian Liberal.
In 1929, the United Free Church of Scotland merged with the Church of Scotland, and Buchan remained active as an elder at St Columba’s Church in London. In 1933 and 1934, he was appointed as King George V’s Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.
Starting in 1930, Buchan supported Zionism, a movement advocating for a Jewish homeland. He spoke out in Parliament against the treatment of Jews in Germany. At a 1934 demonstration by the Jewish National Fund, Buchan called Zionism “a great act of justice” and described it as a way to correct centuries of cruelty toward Jews. He was a friend of Chaim Weizmann and helped keep Britain’s support for a Jewish state alive.
Despite his support for Zionism, especially after becoming a Member of Parliament and the rise of the Nazis, there are debates about whether Buchan held anti-Semitic, imperialistic, or racist views in his early writing. The Penguin Companion to English Literature described him as a “convinced imperialist” and noted that his social and political ideas had “less admirable” implications. A 1996 article in The Herald (Glasgow) said Buchan’s poem The Semitic Spirit Speaks was “poisoned by prejudice.” However, this satirical poem was never published by Buchan, who disliked some wealthy Jews he met in South Africa and also disliked Cecil Rhodes. He did have positive relationships with other Jews, such as Hermann Eckstein, who hosted his engagement party in London in 1907, and Lionel Philips, who hosted the Buchans during their honeymoon in 1907. Earlier works, like A Lodge in the Wilderness (1906) and the 1912 short story “The Grove of Ashtaroth,” show Buchan’s appreciation for Jewish thought and spirituality.
Author Anthony Storr described Buchan as “overtly antisemitic.” Critic Roger Kimball said some of Buchan’s attitudes and language could be seen as those of a “colonialist, a racist, or an anti-Semite.” Kimball acknowledged that Buchan’s views on Jews and other groups were complex.
Governor General of Canada
On 27 March 1935, Sir George Halsey Perley spoke in the Canadian Parliament on behalf of the sick Conservative Prime Minister, Richard Bedford Bennett. He announced that the King had chosen Mr. John Buchan to serve as Canada’s viceregal representative. The King approved the appointment, which was made through a formal document signed by the royal seal. Buchan, who had been named the first Baron Tweedsmuir, traveled to Canada and was officially sworn in as Governor General on 2 November 1935 during a ceremony in the Legislative Council of Quebec (salon rouge) at the parliament buildings in Quebec.
At the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King had become Prime Minister after the Liberal Party won the previous month’s federal election. Tweedsmuir was the first Governor General appointed after the Statute of Westminster was passed in 1931. This meant he was the first to be chosen solely by the Canadian monarch, without British involvement.
Tweedsmuir had long studied Canada. He wrote about the country in The Spectator and covered Canadian soldiers’ actions in Nelson’s History of the War. He also met with Julian Byng during a visit to Canada in 1924 and wrote a memoir about a previous Governor General, Lord Minto, in 1924. His interest in Canada’s history led to his role as the Champlain Society’s second honorary president from 1938 to 1939. During his time as Governor General, Tweedsmuir traveled across Canada, including to the Arctic, and worked to unite the nation. He once said, “A Governor General is in a unique position because it is his duty to know the whole of Canada and all the various types of her people.”
Tweedsmuir promoted a strong Canadian identity and unity, even during the Great Depression. He supported Canada’s independence and encouraged respect for different cultures. However, some people disagreed with his views. In 1937, he said in Montreal, “A Canadian’s first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth, but to Canada, and to Canada’s King.” This statement upset some imperialists, though Tweedsmuir had added the phrase about Canada’s King to his speech after it was shared with the media. He also believed that ethnic groups should keep their traditions and contribute to Canada’s identity, saying that strong nations are made up of diverse people.
In late January 1936, King George V died, and his son, Prince Edward, became king. Rideau Hall, the official residence in Ottawa, was decorated in black crepe, and all formal events were canceled during the mourning period. Prince Edward planned to marry Wallis Simpson, an American divorcee, which caused a crisis. Tweedsmuir informed British leaders that Canadians loved the King but were upset about the marriage. By December 1936, Edward abdicated the throne in favor of his brother, Prince Albert, who became King George VI. Tweedsmuir approved the abdication and signed the Canadian Succession to the Throne Act in 1937. He later joked that during his time as Governor General, he had represented three kings.
Tweedsmuir helped create the Governor General’s Literary Awards in 1936 after discussions with the Canadian Authors Association. These awards, now known as the “GGs,” are Canada’s top literary honors, with seven categories in English and French. He also supported Canadian writers, including inviting influential figures like Sam McLaughlin to Rideau Hall in 1940 to help build a film industry in British Columbia. This vision became a reality when Vancouver was later called “Hollywood North.”
In 1939, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth toured Canada from coast to coast and visited the United States. Tweedsmuir had planned the tour before the king’s coronation in 1937, believing it would show Canada’s independence. Prime Minister Mackenzie King was initially hesitant but agreed after Tweedsmuir argued the visit would unite Canada and improve relations with the U.S. Tweedsmuir worked hard to secure the royal visit, even traveling to the UK to ensure approval. During the tour, the king opened the Lions Gate Bridge in Vancouver and granted Royal Assent to bills in Parliament. The king also awarded Tweedsmuir the Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order. The royal family began their U.S. visit on 8 June 1939.
Tweedsmuir’s efforts to strengthen ties with President Roosevelt began soon after his arrival in Canada. He aimed to show the world that the U.S. and Canada, as part of the British Empire and Commonwealth, were allies. Roosevelt had to be careful not to appear too close to Britain due to U.S. isolationist opinions, but Tweedsmuir’s work helped build trust between the two nations.
Legacy
When John Buchan died in Canada in February 1940 as Governor General Lord Tweedsmuir, people around the world who spoke English and others mourned him deeply. He was remembered for his work as a writer and as a leader. His final role as Governor General highlighted his work as a statesman, but he is most famous today for writing popular adventure stories. Novelist Graham Greene wrote eleven years after Buchan’s death that the settings, pace, and actions in The Thirty-Nine Steps became a model for adventure writers. Buchan and his brother Hugh co-wrote The Spy’s Bedside Book and dedicated it to the memory of Wm Le Queux and John Buchan. Fifty years after Buchan’s death, historian David Stafford said Buchan’s influence on the adventure genre was strong and lasting. J.R.R. Tolkien admired Buchan’s stories. In 2004, military historian Sir John Keegan called Buchan “a writer touched by genius.” In 2015, The Guardian newspaper listed The Thirty-Nine Steps as the 42nd best novel written in English.
Buchan wrote more than 100 works, including about 30 novels, seven short story collections, and biographies of Sir Walter Scott, Caesar Augustus, and Oliver Cromwell. He received the 1928 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his biography of the Marquess of Montrose. Graham Greene called his review of Buchan’s 1941 novel Sick Heart River (American title: Mountain Meadow) “the last Buchan,” describing it as a story about a dying man who faces life’s big questions in the Canadian wilderness.
As Governor General, Buchan started the Governor General’s Literary Awards, which are still Canada’s top literary honors. He and Lady Tweedsmuir created the first proper library at Rideau Hall. His grandchildren, Ursula, David, James, and Perdita Buchan, became journalists or writers. Ursula wrote a biography of him titled Beyond the Thirty-Nine Steps: A Life of John Buchan (2019).
As Governor General and a leader, Buchan helped improve relations between Britain and America during a key time in history. His wide knowledge and vision allowed him to connect Britain, Canada, and the United States. In 2010, Canada recognized his contributions by naming him a “person of national historic significance.” At least four of his successors as Governor General admired his work: Vincent Massey, General Georges Vanier, Adrienne Clarkson, and David Johnston.
Tweedsmuir Provincial Park in British Columbia was divided into Tweedsmuir South Provincial Park and Tweedsmuir North Provincial Park and Protected Area in 1938. The park was created to honor Buchan’s 1937 visit to the Rainbow Range and other nearby areas. Buchan wrote in a booklet about his visit: “I have now travelled over most of Canada and have seen many wonderful things, but I have seen nothing more beautiful and more wonderful than the great park which British Columbia has done me the honour to call by my name.”
Canadian history professor Roger Hall wrote that Buchan’s success came from his unique qualities, and that few modern Governor General candidates have his background. Buchan’s moral strength, as Sir John Keegan noted, helped him create a “moral atmosphere” in his writing. Ursula Buchan described him as an “inspiring example of a life lived for others,” noting that he built a successful career despite having no money or family connections. His qualities included intelligence, kindness, clear thinking, humor, courage, and a writing style that appealed to many readers.