Sturm und Drang (pronounced "shoorm oont drang," German: [ˈʃtʊʁm ʔʊnt ˈdʁaŋ]; usually translated as "storm and stress") was an early Romantic movement in German literature and music that happened from the late 1760s to the early 1780s. This movement focused on expressing personal feelings and intense emotions as a response to the strict rules of Enlightenment ideas and other artistic styles. The name comes from a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, which was first performed by Abel Seyler’s famous theater group in 1777. Johann Anton Leisewitz, Seyler’s son-in-law, wrote a key Sturm und Drang play called Julius of Taranto, which tells a story about two brothers and a woman who both love.

Important people in the movement included Johann Anton Leisewitz, Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, H. L. Wagner, Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, and Johann Georg Hamann. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller were also early supporters of the movement, but they later moved on to start a new style of art and writing called Weimar Classicism.

History

French neoclassicism, which included French neoclassical theatre, began in the early Baroque period and focused on reason. This style became a main target for people who supported the Sturm & Drang movement. For these supporters, the focus on reason and objectivity was replaced by emotional intensity and a focus on individuality. Ideas from the Age of Enlightenment, such as rationalism, empiricism, and universalism, were no longer seen as fully describing the human experience. Instead, strong emotions and personal perspectives became popular in the late 18th century.

The phrase "Sturm und Drang" first appeared as the title of a play written by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger for Abel Seyler’s Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft. The play was published in 1776 and set during the American Revolution. In the play, the author expresses intense emotions and values individuality and personal views over the rules of rationalism. While some argue that works connected to Sturm und Drang existed before this play, it was from this point that German artists began to clearly recognize a new artistic style. This movement, which seemed spontaneous, became linked to many German writers and composers during the mid-to-late Classical period.

Sturm und Drang became known for literature and music that aimed to shock audiences or make them feel very strong emotions. The movement later gave way to Weimar Classicism and early Romanticism, which included a focus on human freedom from oppressive rule and a spiritual view of nature.

There is debate about which works should be included in the Sturm und Drang movement. One view limits the movement to works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Johann Gottfried Herder, Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, and their close associates between 1770 and the early 1780s. Another view sees the movement as part of a broader literary trend that influenced prose, poetry, and drama across German-speaking regions until the end of the 18th century. However, the movement’s creators later saw it as a time of early enthusiasm that was eventually replaced by different artistic goals.

Before Sturm und Drang, the literary concept of the Kraftmensch appeared in plays by dramatists like F.M. Klinger. This idea emphasized that individuals did not need to follow outside authority or be controlled by reason. These values are similar to those of Sturm und Drang, and some argue that the term "Sturm und Drang" was used to describe several related movements in German literature rather than a completely new idea.

Important influences on the Sturm und Drang movement included Johann Georg Hamann, especially his 1762 work Aesthetica in nuce. Eine Rhapsodie in kabbalistischer Prose, and Johann Gottfried Herder, both from Königsberg and both once connected to Immanuel Kant. Key writings by central dramatists of the movement include Lenz’s Anmerkungen übers Theater and Goethe’s Von deutscher Baukunst and Zum Schäkespears Tag (sic). The most important contemporary document was the 1773 collection Von deutscher Art und Kunst. Einige fliegende Blätter, which included essays by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe, Paolo Frisi (translated from Italian), and Justus Möser.

In literature

The main character in a typical Sturm und Drang play, poem, or novel is often pushed to take action—sometimes violent action—not because of noble goals or true reasons, but because of revenge or greed. Goethe's unfinished work Prometheus shows this idea, as well as the mix of humanistic ideas with sudden, irrational behavior. Sturm und Drang literature often criticizes the aristocracy and focuses on simple, natural, or intense real-life experiences, especially those that are painful or frightening.

Goethe's sentimental novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774), which tells a story of unfulfilled love and ends with suicide, shows the author's careful reflection on love and suffering. Friedrich Schiller's play Die Räuber (1781) helped make melodrama a recognized form of drama. The story follows two aristocratic brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz tries to trick Karl out of his inheritance, but his reasons are complicated, leading to a deep exploration of good and evil. These works are important examples of Sturm und Drang in German literature.

The lack of women writers in discussions about Sturm und Drang may be due to the movement's focus on male perspectives or because recent literary studies have not included works by women, such as those by Marianne Ehrmann, which might deserve attention.

Key authors and their works:
– Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832): Zum Shakespears Tag (1771), Sesenheimer Lieder (1770–1771), Prometheus (1772–1774), Götz von Berlichingen (1773), Clavigo (1774), Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774), Mahomets Gesang (1774), Adler und Taube (1774), An Schwager Kronos (1774), Gedichte der Straßburger und Frankfurter Zeit (1775), Stella. Ein Schauspiel für Liebende (1776), Die Geschwister (1776)
– Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805): Die Räuber (1781), Die Verschwörung des Fiesko zu Genua (1783), Kabale und Liebe (1784), An die Freude (1785)
– Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz (1751–1792): Anmerkung über das Theater nebst angehängtem übersetzten Stück Shakespeares (1774), Der Hofmeister oder Vorteile der Privaterziehung (1774), Lustspiele nach dem Plautus fürs deutsche Theater (1774), Die Soldaten (1776)
– Friedrich Maximilian Klinger (1752–1831): Das leidende Weib (1775), Sturm und Drang (1776), Die Zwillinge (1776), Simsone Grisaldo (1776)
– Gottfried August Bürger (1747–1794): Lenore (1773), Gedichte (1778), Wunderbare Reisen zu Wasser und zu Lande, Feldzüge und lustige Abenteuer des Freiherren von Münchhausen (1786)
– Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (1737–1823): Gedichte eines Skalden (1766), Briefe über Merkwürdigkeiten der Literatur (1766–67), Ugolino (1768)
– Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788): Sokratische Denkwürdigkeiten für die lange Weile des Publikums zusammengetragen von einem Liebhaber der langen Weile (1759), Kreuzzüge des Philologen (1762)
– Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse (1746–1803): Ardinghello und die glückseligen Inseln (1787)
– Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803): Fragmente über die neuere deutsche Literatur (1767–1768), Kritische Wälder oder Betrachtungen, die Wissenschaft und Kunst des Schönen betreffend, nach Maßgabe neuerer Schriften (1769), Journal meiner Reise im Jahre (1769), Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache (1770), Von deutscher Art und Kunst, einige fliegende Blätter (1773), Volkslieder (1778–79), Vom Geist der Hebräischen Poesie (1782–1783), Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784–1791)

In music

The Classical period music (1750–1800) linked to Sturm und Drang is mostly written in a minor key to express difficult or sad feelings. The main themes often have sharp, jagged shapes with large jumps and unexpected melodies. Speed and loudness change quickly and unpredictably to show strong emotional shifts. Rhythms that pulse and syncopation are common, as are fast-moving lines in the soprano or alto sections. Music for string instruments often uses tremolo (a fast, shaking sound) and sudden, dramatic changes in loudness and emphasis.

Musical theater became a place where the literary and musical ideas of Sturm und Drang came together, aiming to increase emotional expression in opera. An example is the obligato recitative, where the orchestra adds intense, vivid background music to the solo singing. Christoph Willibald Gluck’s 1761 ballet, Don Juan, marked the start of Sturm und Drang in music; the program notes said the D minor finale was meant to create fear in listeners. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s 1762 play, Pygmalion (first performed in 1770), was also important for using instrumental music to match the mood of the spoken drama. Pygmalion was the first example of melodrama and influenced writers like Goethe.

However, compared to its impact on literature, Sturm und Drang had limited influence on music. Many attempts to label music as part of this movement are not very clear. Vienna, the center of German/Austrian music, was a cosmopolitan city with an international culture. Therefore, minor-key works by Haydn or Mozart from this time should be considered in the larger context of musical trends across Europe. The clearest musical links to the Sturm und Drang movement appear in opera and early forms of program music, such as Haydn’s Farewell Symphony. Composers like Beethoven, Weber, and Schubert also included elements of Sturm und Drang.

A Sturm und Drang period is often linked to Joseph Haydn’s works from the late 1760s to early 1770s. Music from this time often shows a new sense of passion or agitation; however, Haydn never said Sturm und Drang influenced his style. His music still followed classical forms and focused on unity in musical ideas. Though Haydn may not have intentionally followed the anti-rational ideals of Sturm und Drang, his instrumental works from this time show the influence of trends in musical theater.

Mozart’s Symphony No. 25 (the “Little” G-minor symphony, 1773) is one of only two minor-key symphonies he wrote. In addition to using an unusual key, the symphony includes syncopated rhythms and jagged themes typical of Sturm und Drang. Wind instruments play a more prominent role here, with the violins giving way to bright bursts from the oboe and flute. However, this may have been inspired by minor-key works by Johann Baptist Wanhal, a contemporary of Mozart, rather than a direct connection to the German literary movement.

• Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Symphonies, keyboard concertos, and sonatas including Symphony in E minor Wq. 178 (1757–62)
• Johann Christian Bach: Symphony in G minor Op. 6 No. 6
• Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach: Oratorio Die Auferweckung des Lazarus, Cantata Cassandra
• Wilhelm Friedemann Bach: Adagio und Fuge in D minor Falk 65
• Joseph Haydn: Symphony No. 39 in G minor (1767), Symphony No. 49 in F minor La Passione (1768), Symphony No. 26 in D minor Lamentatione (1769), Symphony No. 52 in C minor (1771), Symphony No. 44 in E minor Trauer (Mourning) (1772), Symphony No. 45 in F sharp minor Farewell (1772), String Quartet No. 11 in D minor, Op. 9 No. 4 (1769), String Quartet No. 19 in C minor, Op. 17 No. 4 (1771), String Quartet No. 23 in F minor, Op. 20 No. 5 (1772), String Quartet No. 26 in G minor, Op. 20 No. 3 (1772), Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/47 in E minor (1765–67), Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/20 in C minor (1771), Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/44 in G minor (1771–73), Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/32 in B minor (1774–76)
• Joseph Martin Kraus: Symphony in C minor Symphonie funebre, Symphony in C-sharp minor
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Symphony No. 25 in G minor, K. 183 (1773), String Quartet No. 13 in D minor, K. 173 (1773), Violin Sonata No. 21 in E minor, K. 304 (1778), Piano Sonata No. 8 in A minor, K. 310 (1778)
• Johann Gottfried Müthel: Works for keyboard
• Johann Baptist Wanhal: Symphony in E minor (Bryan e3) (1760–62), Symphony in E minor (Bryan e1) (1764–67), Symphony in C minor (Bryan c2) (1764–67), Symphony in G minor (Bryan g2) (1764–6

In visual art

The similar trend in visual arts can be seen in paintings of storms and shipwrecks, which show the fear and sudden destruction caused by nature. These pre-romantic works became popular in Germany from the 1760s to the 1780s, showing that people enjoyed art that evoked strong emotions. Art that displayed scary or unsettling scenes was also gaining attention in Germany. This is shown by Goethe owning and liking paintings by Henry Fuseli, which could "give the viewer a good fright." Important artists during this time included Joseph Vernet, Caspar Wolf, Philip James de Loutherbourg, and Henry Fuseli.

In theatre

The Sturm und Drang movement lasted from 1771 to 1778, according to Betty Waterhouse (Waterhouse v). During the 18th century, the middle class grew in power, which changed how society and social positions were viewed. Dramatists and writers used the stage to discuss and criticize societal issues. French writer Louis-Sébastien Mercier believed drama could promote political ideas, a concept that would later develop. After the Seven Years' War ended in 1763, German pride increased, and many Germans felt important on a larger stage. The aristocracy became the ruling class, which worsened the divide and tension between social classes (Liedner viii). New ideas led to a need for a new form of art that could challenge the popular French neoclassicism style. Johann Georg Hamann, a German philosopher and supporter of the Sturm und Drang movement, argued that the language of the people, or "Volk," was richer and more powerful than the abstract language of the 18th century (Liedner viii). Germany was not a single country but made up of many small states. The Sturm und Drang movement was a response to this lack of political unity and often focused on living on a smaller scale while wanting to be part of something bigger.

The Sturm und Drang movement focused heavily on the language used in literature. Shakespeare was admired by German writers for his creative use of language, complex stories, and characters from all social classes (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Many writers of the movement saw themselves as opposing the Enlightenment, but the movement actually continued Enlightenment ideas. Sturm und Drang plays explored how society affects individuals, a theme common in Enlightenment works. However, Sturm und Drang also highlighted the power of the environment and the contradictions in society (Liedner ix). The movement introduced themes like depression and violence with open-ended plots, which were ahead of its time (Liedner ix). It rejected the rules of neoclassicism and the Enlightenment, praised Shakespeare as a dramatic genius, and influenced 19th-century romanticism. Writers like Heinrich Leopold Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller used episodic structures, violence, and mixed genres to comment on society’s rules and morals, while doubting if change was possible. Though short-lived, the movement had a lasting impact.

Six playwrights helped start and popularize the Sturm und Drang movement: Leisewitz, Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller. Abel Seyler, a theatre director and owner of the Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft, played a key role in promoting the movement.

Johann Anton Leisewitz was born in Hanover in 1752 and studied law. He is known for his only complete play, Julius of Taranto (1776), which inspired Schiller’s The Robbers (1781). He married Sophie Seyler, the daughter of Abel Seyler.

Heinrich Leopold Wagner was born in Strasbourg on February 19, 1747. He studied law and was part of a literary group led by Johann Daniel Salzmann. Wagner worked as a dramatist, producer, translator, and lawyer for the traveling Abel Seyler theatre company. His plays The Remorse After the Deed (1775) and The Childmurderess (1776) were popular. The Childmurderess broke from neoclassical rules by featuring a non-noble protagonist and showing how the aristocracy harmed middle-class characters (Liedner xii). The play used colorful language to highlight social differences and explored how society prevents change. In the story, a lieutenant named Groningseck tries to ignore social rules, but another officer, Hasenpoth, betrays him (Liedner xii).

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in Frankfurt in 1749. His first major play, Götz von Berlichingen (1773), was written in Shakespeare’s style, a key feature of the Sturm und Drang movement (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Shakespeare was admired by German writers for breaking dramatic rules and creating emotionally complex characters (Waterhouse v). Goethe also wrote the long dramatic poem Faust and directed the Weimar Theatre. After traveling to Italy, he returned with a new interest in classical ideas, leading to the development of Weimar Classicism.

Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz was born in Sesswegen, now Latvia, on January 23, 1751. He studied theology and philosophy at the University of Königsberg. His early works included Die Landplagen (1769) and plays like The New Menoza and Der Hofmeister (1774). Lenz challenged traditional ideas by reversing the importance of plot over character and blending comedy and tragedy. His play The Soldiers (1776) focused on soldiers harming civilians, especially young women. The story showed a powerless character struggling to survive, reflecting the theme of feeling trapped in society (Liedner xi). Lenz’s use of open-ended plots and mixing comedy and tragedy influenced later writers like Friedrich Dürrenmatt and Bertolt Brecht (Waterhouse v).

Friedrich Maximilian Klinger was born in Frankfurt on February 17, 1752. He came from a poor family and studied law with financial help from Goethe’s family. He worked with the Abel Seyler troupe for 1.5 years (Pascal 132). Though known for Sturm und Drang plays, his earlier works