Exegesis (pronounced ek-SEE-jees; from the Greek word meaning "to lead out") is a detailed explanation or interpretation of a text. It is usually used for studying religious texts, especially the Bible. Today, exegesis can also be used to analyze other types of writing, such as philosophy, literature, or other written works. The term "Biblical exegesis" helps to clearly separate studies of the Bible from other types of text analysis.

Textual criticism looks at the history and origins of a text. Exegesis may also study the historical and cultural background of the author, the text, and the people who originally read it. Other parts of exegesis include identifying the type of writing in the text, such as a story or a letter, and examining the grammar and sentence structure of the text.

Usage

A person who uses exegesis is called an exegete. The plural form of exegesis is exegeses, and words that describe exegesis are exegetic or exegetical (for example, exegetical commentaries). In biblical studies, exegesis means to carefully explain the meaning of a text by drawing out its original intent. The opposite of exegesis is eisegesis, which means to interpret a text by adding personal ideas that are not supported by the text itself. Eisegetic interpretations are often viewed as incorrect or unhelpful.

Mesopotamian commentaries

One of the earliest examples of studying texts, and one of the largest collections of text commentaries from the ancient world, comes from Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) during the first millennium BCE. These commentaries include over 860 manuscripts, most of which were written between 700 and 100 BCE. They explain many types of texts, such as literary works like the Babylonian Epic of Creation, medical writings, magical texts, ancient dictionaries, and law collections like the Code of Hammurabi. Most of these commentaries focus on divination treatises, which predict the future based on the movement of celestial bodies (as in Enūma Anu Enlil) or the appearance of a sacrificed sheep’s liver (as in Bārûtu).

Like many other ancient texts from the Near East, Mesopotamian commentaries were written on clay tablets using cuneiform script. These commentaries are written in Akkadian, an East Semitic language. However, because Sumerian language influenced cuneiform scholarship, many commentaries also include Sumerian words or phrases.

Cuneiform commentaries are important because they provide information about Mesopotamian languages and culture that is not found elsewhere in the cuneiform record. For example, the pronunciation of the name Gilgamesh, the hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh, was discovered in a cuneiform commentary on a medical text. Beyond this, these commentaries reveal what Mesopotamian scholars cared about when reading widely studied texts, helping us understand their perspectives. Additionally, they are the earliest known examples of interpreting texts and may have influenced later practices like rabbinical exegesis.

The study of these texts began in the mid-19th century after the discovery of royal Assyrian libraries in Nineveh, where about 454 commentaries were found. Research on cuneiform commentaries continues today, led by a small group of international scholars who specialize in Assyriology.

Commentaries on Plato

Commentaries on Plato's works form a large collection of writings, especially from ancient and medieval times, aimed at explaining and making his ideas clearer. After Plato's time, many Platonist philosophers tried to summarize and explain his thoughts. However, during the Roman era, a group of philosophers called Neoplatonists wrote many commentaries on specific dialogues by Plato. Many of these writings still exist today.

Biblical commentaries

A common way to study and explain the Bible is through a Bible commentary. This type of work is usually made up of several books, with each book focusing on explaining one or two parts of the Bible. Longer books or those with many details for religious or historical study, like Genesis or Psalms, might be divided into two or three separate books. Some parts of the Bible, like the Four Gospels, can be in one or multiple books, while shorter sections, such as certain parts of Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah (like the Book of Susanna, Prayer of Azariah, and Bel and the Dragon), or the pastoral and Johannine letters, are often combined into a single book.

Each book in a commentary may follow the same format or have slight differences in how the authors explain the text. Typically, a commentary includes a section about the background and introduction of the book, followed by a detailed explanation of each part, paragraph by paragraph or verse by verse. Before the 20th century, one person usually wrote a commentary alone. However, in recent times, a publishing company may ask a group of scholars to write a commentary together, with each scholar responsible for a different section.

A single commentary aims to provide a consistent and clear view of the Bible as a whole, such as from a Catholic or Reformed (Calvinist) perspective, or from a secular viewpoint focusing on text or history. However, each section may reflect the personal focus or background of its author, and the quality, depth, and strength of each part in a commentary can vary widely.

Christianity

In Christianity, different ways of interpreting the Bible have been used over time. One such method is the doctrine of four senses of Scripture, which is part of biblical hermeneutics. This idea was developed in the 3rd century by Origen, a theologian who studied at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. He created the principle of three senses of Scripture—literal, moral, and spiritual—based on the Jewish method of interpretation called midrash, which was used by Paul of Tarsus in his letter to the Galatians, chapter 4.

The historical-grammatical method is a way of interpreting the Bible that focuses on finding the original meaning the author intended. Many conservative Protestant scholars use this method and often reject the historical-critical method, which some fundamentalist Protestants completely oppose. Others, like the Catholic Church since Pope Pius XII, accept it in a more limited way. In contrast, liberal Christianity often relies heavily on the historical-critical method, which examines the historical background of texts to understand their original context and literal meaning.

Historical criticism, also called the historical-critical method or higher criticism, is a type of literary analysis that studies the origins of ancient texts. It aims to understand the world and circumstances that influenced the text’s creation to uncover its original meaning.

Revealed exegesis believes the Holy Spirit inspired the authors of the Bible, meaning the words of the texts carry divine revelation. This view holds that the Bible has a "fuller meaning" than the human authors could have intended, known as sensus plenior.

Rational exegesis focuses on the idea that the authors of the Bible were influenced by their own environment and human intelligence, rather than divine inspiration. It treats their work as a product of their social and intellectual context.

Important centers for Catholic biblical exegesis include:
– The École Biblique of Jerusalem, founded in 1890 by Marie-Joseph Lagrange of the Dominican order. The school faced challenges during the modernist crisis and limited its New Testament studies until after Vatican II.
– The Pontifical Biblical Institute of Rome, part of the Jesuit Gregorian University, has shaped Catholic exegesis through teaching and the Pontifical Biblical Commission.

For over a century, German universities like Tübingen have been known as centers of biblical study. In the United States, the Divinity Schools of Chicago, Harvard, and Yale became famous for their work in this field.

An example of Protestant Christian exegesis is Robert A. Traina’s book Methodical Bible Study.

Indian philosophy

The Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy, also called Pūrva Mīmāṃsā ("prior" inquiry) or Karma-Mīmāṃsā, focuses on interpreting ancient texts. It is different from Uttara Mīmāṃsā ("posterior" inquiry), also known as Brahma-Mīmāṃsā. The Mimamsa school helped develop the study of languages and how language works. It introduced the idea that "shabda," or speech, is a single unit combining sound and meaning. This idea was developed by Bhartrhari, a scholar from the 7th century.

Islam

Tafsir is the Arabic word for explaining the Qur'an. It means interpretation or commentary. It helps explain parts of the Qur'an that are not clear through reasoning or logic, such as the background of a verse or when one verse replaces another. These explanations use trusted information, including other verses from the Qur'an, sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, and stories from his companions, who were present during the revelation of some verses. People who write tafsir are called mufassir. Examples of tafsir works include Tafsir Kabir by Imam Razi and Tafseer al-Qurʾān al-ʿAẓeem by ibn Kathir.

Judaism

Traditional Jewish methods of interpreting religious texts are found in Rabbinic writings, which include the Mishnah, the two Talmuds, and Midrashic literature. Jewish interpreters of religious texts are called mefarshim, which means "commentators" in Hebrew.

The Midrash is a collection of teachings and commentaries on the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible). It includes explanations of the Torah, Jewish laws (called Halakha), and stories and teachings (called Aggadah) that are not directly about laws. Midrashic interpretation focuses on finding religious lessons, moral guidance, and spiritual comfort in the Bible, rather than always focusing on the original meaning of the text. The Tannaim and Amoraim, early Jewish scholars, recognized that Midrashic methods sometimes differ from the literal meaning of the text, though their understanding of "literal" may not match modern views. Rabbi Ishmael ben Elisha once criticized another scholar for treating the Bible as if it should remain silent while he explained it.

Tannaitic interpretation, a method used by early Jewish scholars, separates two approaches: using a passage to prove a point or using it as a memory aid. This distinction was later used in Babylonian schools. The Babylonian Amoraim, Jewish scholars from ancient Babylon, introduced the terms "Peshaṭ" (meaning the straightforward or literal interpretation) and "Drash" (the Midrashic interpretation). These terms became important in the study of the Hebrew Bible. A key rule was established that Midrashic interpretations could not override the literal meaning of the text. This rule became central to how the Bible was studied.

This rule was not widely known at first. Kahana ben Tahlifa, a scholar from the 4th century, admitted that he learned the entire Mishnah by age 18 but only learned about this rule much later. This shows that, after the Talmud was completed, scholars focused more on Midrashic interpretations than on the literal meaning of the text.

At the same time, the Masorites, Jewish scribes, worked hard to preserve the correct pronunciation and reading of the Hebrew Bible. The study of the Mikra, the core part of Jewish learning, included the three sections of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah, the Prophets, and the Ketuvim (Writings). Learning these texts involved understanding how to divide sentences and words for clear reading. Scribes also studied the Targum, an Aramaic translation of the Bible, which helped explain the text but was influenced by Midrashic teachings.

Reading the Bible with the Targum helped scholars learn more about Jewish traditions. Scribes used teachings from the Bible and the Targum in synagogue services. Aggadah, the third part of Jewish tradition, provided material for sermons.

Jewish interpretation of religious texts continued after the Talmud, through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and into modern times. Jewish communities worldwide value these studies to understand scripture, using tools like commentaries and engaging with classic writings. Scholars like Saadia Gaon (author of The Book of Beliefs and Opinions), Solomon ibn Gabirol, and Isaac Alfasi connected different eras by emphasizing logic, observation, and divine qualities. Others, such as Bahya ibn Paquda, Ibn Ezra, and Maimonides (author of The Guide for the Perplexed), reinterpreted virtues, developed language traditions, and combined philosophy with religion using clear reasoning. Their works have been translated into many languages, ensuring their influence continues today.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrian exegesis involves the interpretation of the Avesta, a set of sacred texts. The related Iranian concept, called zand, usually includes Pahlavi texts that were thought to come from explanations of Avestan scripture. However, these texts do not contain any actual Avestan passages. Unlike similar practices in other religions, Zoroastrian exegesis developed within a tradition that relied mostly on oral transmission for a long time, even after the Sasanian era began. This long period of speaking and passing down knowledge helped shape the Middle Persian Zand and limited its focus. Later traditions divided Avestan texts into categories like "Gathic," "legal," and possibly "ritual," but there seems to be no major difference in how Pahlavi commentaries were written for each type, such as for the Gathas, Vendīdād, Hērbedestān, and Nērangestān. Many Zoroastrian works from the 19th and 20th centuries include some form of interpretation, but no true exegetical literature exists in the strict sense. Therefore, this discussion will focus on modern Zoroastrian exegesis without examining specific texts in detail.

In a secular context

Several universities, such as the Sorbonne in Paris, Leiden University, and the Université Libre de Bruxelles, teach interpreting religious or philosophical texts in both secular (non-religious) and religious contexts. Studying texts in a secular way is part of learning about religion.

At some universities in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong, interpreting texts is required work for doctorates in fine arts, including creative-writing doctorates. Students must submit a scholarly text that explains a creative work, such as a film, novel, or poem, that they create. Together, the creative work and the scholarly text form the student’s research thesis.

In the late 1930s, a philosopher named Leo Strauss first suggested that people should reconsider the difference between exoteric (public) and esoteric (secret) teaching. In 1952, he wrote a book called Persecution and the Art of Writing, in which he argued that serious writers use esoteric writing. This means they include multiple or hidden meanings, often using irony, paradox, or unclear references. Esoteric writing helps protect philosophers from punishment by rulers, protects rulers from the influence of philosophy, attracts the right readers, and repels the wrong ones. Finding the hidden message in such writing is itself a form of philosophical thinking.

Inspired by the works of Maimonides and Al-Farabi, and going back to Plato’s Phaedrus, Strauss argued that the classical and medieval practice of esoteric writing is the best way to teach philosophy. Instead of explaining ideas directly, classical and medieval texts encourage readers to think and learn on their own. Strauss agreed with Plato’s idea that good writing makes readers ask questions, which helps them understand the problems the writer studied deeply. In Persecution and the Art of Writing, Strauss described Maimonides as someone who hid his true ideas for political reasons.

Strauss’s argument, which he repeated in later works like The City and Man (1964), is that before the 19th century, Western scholars believed philosophical writing did not fit well in any society, even liberal ones. Philosophy often challenges widely accepted ideas, so philosophers had to be careful when writing. They used indirect methods to avoid being punished by those who saw themselves as wise or moral leaders. This was especially true in medieval times, when thinkers faced dangers like the Inquisition.

Strauss did not claim that medieval writers had one meaning for the general public and a hidden meaning for a small group of people. Instead, he argued that they used techniques like contradictions or exaggerations to express their true ideas in a way that could not be reduced to simple explanations.

Following the ideas of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Strauss explained that medieval philosophers, like ancient ones, adjusted their writing to match the moral views of their time. This was to avoid being accused of heresy or injustice. They were not worried about the general public, who rarely read, but about a small group of people who were seen as moral leaders. These leaders were most likely to punish those who exposed the hidden truths that supported their authority over others.