Classicism is a style in the arts that looks back to the time of ancient Greece and Rome. It focuses on ideas from these ancient cultures, such as balance, simplicity, and clear structure. Classicism values control, calm emotions, and the use of clear forms to show beauty and perfection. Sir Kenneth Clark said that the way the sculpture Discobolus shows controlled movement is a key part of classicism. If there were too much movement or emotion, it would lose its balance and feel less complete. Classicism includes a set of widely accepted ideal forms, which were studied in the Western tradition, especially in Clark's book The Nude (1956).

Classicism is a strong influence in European art after the Middle Ages. Some periods, like the Age of Enlightenment, were especially connected to classical ideals. During this time, Neoclassicism became an important style in visual arts.

General term

Classicism is a style found in many areas like literature, art, and music. It has roots in Ancient Greece and Rome and focuses on society. It was especially seen in Neoclassicism during the Age of Enlightenment.

Classicism appeared often during the Late Antique period and was revived in Carolingian and Ottonian art. A stronger revival happened during the Italian Renaissance. This was because the fall of Byzantium and increased trade with Islamic cultures brought more knowledge about ancient Europe. Before this time, people believed European history was a continuous story of Christianity since Emperor Constantine I converted to Christianity. Renaissance classicism added new ideas to European culture, such as using math and observation in art, humanism, realistic art, and formal styles. It also introduced Polytheism, or "paganism," and combined ancient and modern ideas.

The classicism of the Renaissance led to a different understanding of what was "classical" in the 16th and 17th centuries. During this time, classicism focused more on structure, order, geometry, and strict rules. Schools of art and music were formed, and the court of Louis XIV became a center of this style. It used symbols from Greek mythology to support ideas of strong leadership and valued logic and predictability.

This period revived classical art forms, such as Greek drama and music. Opera, as it is known today, began with efforts to recreate Greek-style performances that combined singing, dancing, and theater. Poets and playwrights like Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare were influenced by classical ideals. Tudor drama followed classical rules, dividing plays into tragedies and comedies. Learning Ancient Greek was considered important for a well-rounded education.

The Renaissance also brought back architectural styles from Greece and Rome. Buildings used the golden rectangle as a key proportion, classical column styles, and detailed decorations from ancient times. Artists revived techniques like bronze casting for sculptures and used realistic styles in drawing, painting, and sculpture.

During the Age of Enlightenment, people saw antiquity as connected to the classicism of earlier times but also influenced by new ideas. Scientists like Isaac Newton and advances in machinery and measurement changed how people thought. This led to movements that called themselves "classical" or "Neoclassical." For example, painter Jacques-Louis David aimed to return to balanced, clear, and strong styles in art.

In the 19th century, classicism was seen as the foundation for academicism, including scientific ideas like uniformitarianism and strict categories in art. Some Romantic movements saw themselves as reviving classical ideas against emotional and irregular trends, such as the Pre-Raphaelites. By this time, earlier classical periods, like the Renaissance, were studied to blend medieval and classical styles. The 19th century continued scientific work, like Newton’s ideas about energy movement.

In the 20th century, classicism was used in different ways. Some saw it as a way to reject changes in politics, science, and society, while others used it to embrace new ideas and move away from the 19th century’s trends. Both older and modern art styles were labeled "classical."

Today, classicism is often linked to the idea of favoring rationality and structured emotions over strong feelings in society and art.

In the theatre

In the 17th century, French playwrights created a style called Classicism. They based this style on what they believed were the rules of Greek theatre, as described in Aristotle's Poetics. These rules included the "Classical unities" of time, place, and action.

Examples of classicist playwrights include Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, and Molière. During the Romanticism period, Shakespeare became a topic of debate in France because he did not follow the classical rules. The Romantics eventually supported Shakespeare's style, and Victor Hugo was one of the first French playwrights to reject these classical traditions.

The influence of French classical rules on playwrights in other countries is uncertain. In England, Restoration playwrights like William Wycherley and William Congreve were familiar with these rules. However, Shakespeare and his contemporaries did not follow this style. This was partly because they were not French and because they wrote plays before the classical rules were established. Some of Shakespeare's plays, like The Tempest, may show knowledge of ancient Greek models.

In the 18th century, the famous Italian playwright and libretist Carlo Goldoni created a unique style that combined elements of Molière's plays, Commedia dell'arte, and his own original ideas.

In literature

The classical style in literature was influenced by the balance and harmony found in important works from ancient Greek and Latin writings.

During the 17th–18th centuries, important classical writers, mainly playwrights and poets, included Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, John Dryden, William Wycherley, William Congreve, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope, Voltaire, Carlo Goldoni, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing.

In architecture

Classicism in architecture began during the Italian Renaissance. It was influenced by the work of Leon Battista Alberti and Filippo Brunelleschi. This style focuses on symmetry, proportion, geometry, and regularity. These features are seen in the architecture of Classical antiquity, especially Ancient Rome. Many examples of Ancient Roman architecture still exist.

Architects used columns, pilasters, and lintels in orderly ways. They also used semicircular arches, domes, niches, and aedicules. These replaced the complex and irregular designs of medieval buildings. This style spread quickly to other Italian cities and later to France, Germany, England, Russia, and other countries.

In the 16th century, Sebastiano Serlio helped organize the classical orders. Andrea Palladio's work led to the long tradition of Palladian architecture. In the 17th century, architects Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren used these influences to establish classicism in England.

For more about classicism from the mid-18th century onward, see Neoclassical architecture.

In the fine arts

Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture are characterized by the revival of classical styles, themes, and subjects. In the 15th century, Leon Battista Alberti helped develop many ideas for painting. These ideas were fully realized in Raphael’s School of Athens during the High Renaissance. The themes from this period continued without major changes into the 17th century, when artists like Nicolas Poussin and Charles Le Brun created works that showed a more strict classical style. Just as Italian classical ideas spread across Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries, similar styles spread throughout Europe again in the mid-to-late 17th century.

Later classical styles in painting and sculpture from the mid-18th and 19th centuries are generally called Neoclassicism.

Political philosophy

Classical political philosophy began in ancient Greece. Western political philosophy is often linked to the Greek philosopher Plato. Although Plato started political theory, it became more complex when his student, Aristotle, developed his own ideas. "The political theories of both philosophers are closely connected to their ethical theories, and they focused on questions about constitutions or forms of government."

However, Plato and Aristotle were not the first to think about these ideas. They built on the work of earlier thinkers who had debated political topics for centuries before their time. For example, Herodotus described a debate between Theseus, a king, and a messenger from Creon. This debate showed people who supported democracy, monarchy, and oligarchy, and it explained how they viewed these forms of government. Herodotus' description was one of the early foundations that helped Plato and Aristotle develop their own political theories.

Another important Greek philosopher in classical political philosophy was Socrates. Although he did not create formal theories, he often asked questions that made others think about their beliefs. Socrates believed that the same values that guide how individuals live should also shape the political life of a community. He criticized the people of Athens for focusing too much on wealth and power instead of working on community projects.

Like Plato and Aristotle, Socrates did not develop his ideas alone. His beliefs were influenced by earlier thinkers like Protagoras and other "sophists." These teachers of political arts were the first to think and act in ways similar to Socrates. However, they differed in how they practiced their ideas. Protagoras' ideas were popular in Athens, while Socrates challenged people and was not as widely accepted.

In the end, ancient Greece is credited with creating the foundation of classical political philosophy.