Mannerism is an art style that began in Italy during the late High Renaissance around 1520. It spread to other areas by about 1530 and lasted until the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style took over. In northern Europe, Mannerism lasted into the early 17th century.
Mannerism includes many different styles that were influenced by and responded to the balanced and ideal beauty found in the works of artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Vasari, and early Michelangelo. While High Renaissance art focused on proportion and balance, Mannerism often exaggerated these features, leading to compositions that were asymmetrical or overly elegant.
Mannerism is known for its artificial look, which is different from the realistic style of earlier art. This style prefers tension and instability in compositions over the balance and clarity seen in Renaissance art. In literature and music, Mannerism is known for its very elaborate style and complex ideas.
Art historians still debate what Mannerism means and how it changed over time. Some scholars use the term for certain types of literature and music from the 16th and 17th centuries. The word is also used for some late Gothic painters in northern Europe between 1500 and 1530, such as the Antwerp Mannerists, who were not connected to the Italian movement. Mannerism has also been compared to the Silver Age of Latin literature.
Nomenclature
The word "Mannerism" comes from the Italian word maniera, which means "style" or "manner." Like the English word "style," maniera can describe a specific type of style, such as a beautiful or sharp style, or it can refer to a general quality, like when someone is said to "have style." In the second edition of his book Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (1568), Giorgio Vasari used maniera in three ways: to describe an artist's way of working, to refer to a personal or group style (such as maniera greca for a medieval style or maniera of Michelangelo), and to praise the quality of an artist's work. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he called the time he lived in "la maniera moderna," or "the modern style." James V. Mirollo explains that "Bella maniera" poets tried to improve on the skill of Petrarch’s sonnets. This idea of "Bella maniera" shows that artists inspired by it focused on copying and improving the work of earlier artists, rather than directly copying nature. In short, "Bella maniera" combined the best ideas from many sources to create something new.
As a term for a style, "Mannerism" is hard to define clearly. A Swiss historian named Jacob Burckhardt used the term, and German art historians later popularized it in the early 20th century to describe the difficult-to-categorize art of 16th-century Italy. This art no longer showed the balanced and logical style of the High Renaissance, a period known for harmony, grandeur, and a revival of ancient classical styles. The term "Mannerist" was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman after an exhibition of Mannerist paintings held in 1965 at Manchester City Art Gallery.
Historians still disagree about whether Mannerism is a style, a movement, or a time period. Some call it the "Late Renaissance." Though the term is still debated, it is often used to describe European art and culture from the 16th century.
Origin and development
By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists faced a problem: It seemed that all achievements in art had already been reached. No new challenges, technical or otherwise, remained to solve. Artists had mastered detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, human expressions, and how people show emotions through gestures. The use of the human body in art and the careful blending of tones had nearly reached perfection. These young artists needed a new goal and began exploring new methods. At this time, a new style called Mannerism began to develop between 1510 and 1520, either in Florence, Rome, or both cities at the same time.
This period is described as a "natural extension" of the art created by Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo developed his unique style early in life, which was admired and later copied by other artists. His work was known for its "terribilità," a powerful and awe-inspiring quality that other artists tried to copy. Many artists learned by studying Michelangelo’s works, such as his Sistine Chapel ceiling, the figures on his Medici tombs, and his painting The Last Judgment. Michelangelo’s later work became a major influence on Mannerism. Young artists even broke into his home to steal his drawings. In his book Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Giorgio Vasari wrote that Michelangelo once said, "Those who follow others can never surpass them."
Patrons, or wealthy supporters of art, encouraged competition among artists by rewarding those who used highly skilled techniques. This competition led artists to create dramatic scenes, elaborate clothing, complex compositions, stretched body proportions, and stylized poses. Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were both commissioned by Piero Soderini to paint in the Hall of Five Hundred in Florence. They worked side by side, pushing each other to be as creative as possible.
Early Mannerists in Florence, such as Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino, who studied under Andrea del Sarto, used long, stretched forms, unstable poses, unclear perspectives, unusual settings, and dramatic lighting. In Rome, artists like Parmigianino and Giulio Romano followed similar styles. These artists were influenced by the High Renaissance but developed a style that was seen as a reaction to or exaggeration of it. Instead of studying nature directly, younger artists studied ancient Greek and Roman sculptures and paintings. This style was called "anti-classical" by later scholars, but at the time, it was seen as a natural next step after the High Renaissance. The early phase of Mannerism, known for its "anti-classical" features, lasted until about 1540 or 1550. Art historian Marcia B. Hall wrote in her book After Raphael that Raphael’s early death marked the start of Mannerism in Rome.
Some scholars have linked Mannerism’s rise to other events in the early 16th century, such as the Copernican theory about the Earth’s movement, the Sack of Rome in 1527, and the Protestant Reformation’s challenge to the Catholic Church. Because of this, some believed Mannerism’s unusual forms were a response to the idealized art of the High Renaissance. However, this idea is no longer widely accepted. Mannerist art is still contrasted with High Renaissance styles, as young artists no longer focused on the balance and clarity seen in works like Raphael’s School of Athens.
A later period of Mannerism, different from the early "anti-classical" phase, focused more on intellectual ideas and highly skilled techniques. This style was criticized for being overly artificial and unnatural, leading to the term "manner" (maniera). Artists in this period, like Agnolo Bronzino and Giorgio Vasari, looked to Michelangelo as their main influence. Their work emphasized art imitating art, not nature. Art historian Sydney Joseph Freedberg noted that these artists expected viewers to recognize references to familiar figures in unusual settings. The most exaggerated examples of this style feature figures with exaggerated elegance, smooth skin, and cool, distant expressions. These works are often described as "cold" or "aloof," reflecting the mature stage of Mannerism, known as the "stylish style."
Spread
The cities of Rome, Florence, and Mantua were important centers for Mannerist art in Italy. In Venice, artists like Titian developed a different style over his long career. Many early Mannerist artists who worked in Rome during the 1520s left the city after the Sack of Rome in 1527. As these artists moved across Europe to find work, they shared their style with people in Italy and Northern Europe. This created the first international art style since the Gothic period. In parts of Northern Europe without direct contact with Italian artists, Mannerism spread through printed images and books. European rulers bought Italian artworks, and northern artists traveled to Italy, helping to spread the Mannerist style. Some Italian artists who worked in the North started a movement called Northern Mannerism. For example, King Francis I of France received a painting called Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time by Bronzino. In Italy, Mannerism declined after 1580 as new artists like the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio, and Cigoli revived naturalism. This period was called "anti-mannerism" by Walter Friedlaender, similar to how early Mannerists were called "anti-classical" for moving away from High Renaissance values. The Carracci brothers and Caravaggio began the shift to Baroque-style painting, which became dominant by 1600.
Outside Italy, Mannerism lasted into the 17th century. In France, where artist Rosso worked at the court of Fontainebleau, it was called the "Henry II style" and influenced architecture. Other important places for Northern Mannerism included the court of Rudolf II in Prague, as well as Haarlem, Antwerp, and Danzig (Gdańsk). In England, Mannerism is rarely used to describe art, where terms like "Elizabethan" and "Jacobean" are more common. An exception is 17th-century Artisan Mannerism, which describes architecture based on pattern books rather than European styles.
At Fontainebleau, the Flemish influence combined the sensuality of French art with an early form of the vanitas tradition, which later became common in Dutch and Flemish painting. During this time, many northern painters, called pittore vago, traveled to France and Italy to create a unified international style.
Sculpture
Early Italian Mannerist sculpture aimed to create a new style that would match or surpass the achievements of the High Renaissance, which in sculpture mainly meant the work of Michelangelo. Much of this effort took place through projects in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, where Michelangelo's statue of David stood. Baccio Bandinelli took charge of the sculpture Hercules and Cacus, but the work was not very popular then and is not popular now. Benvenuto Cellini once compared it to "a sack of melons," though it influenced later sculptures by introducing relief panels on statue pedestals. Like other Mannerist works, this sculpture removed more of the original stone block than Michelangelo would have done. Cellini's bronze statue Perseus with the Head of Medusa is a masterpiece, designed with eight different angles for viewing, a Mannerist feature. Compared to Michelangelo's and Donatello's Davids, it has a more artificial, stylized look. Originally a goldsmith, Cellini's famous Salt Cellar (1543), made of gold and enamel, was his first sculpture and shows his talent clearly.
Small bronze statues, often showing mythological scenes with nude figures, were a popular Renaissance art form. Giambologna, who was originally from Flanders but worked in Florence, became famous for these works in the later part of the century. He also created life-sized sculptures, two of which were placed in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers made elegant, elongated sculptures called figura serpentinata, often showing two figures entwined. These sculptures were designed to look interesting from all angles.
Early theorists
Giorgio Vasari's views on painting are shown through the praise he gives to other artists in his book Lives of the Artists. He believed that excellent painting required refinement, creative ideas (called invenzione), skilled techniques (maniera), and cleverness that appeared in the final artwork. These standards focused on the artist's intelligence and the patron's sensitivity. At this time, artists were no longer just members of local guilds like the Guild of St. Luke. Instead, they worked in royal courts with scholars, poets, and humanists, in a culture that valued elegance and complexity.
In Vasari's portrait, the coat-of-arms of his Medici patrons appears at the top, as if it belonged to Vasari himself. The frame of the woodcut image in Lives of the Artists would be called "Jacobean" in English-speaking countries. This frame includes elements inspired by Michelangelo's Medici tombs, such as non-traditional architectural details, a paper-like pierced frame, and figures of satyrs at the bottom. The frame is considered extravagant and is an example of Mannerist style.
Another important figure from this time was Gian Paolo Lomazzo, who wrote two works—one practical and one metaphysical—that helped explain how Mannerist artists thought about their art. His book Trattato dell'arte della pittura, scoltura et architettura (1584) described ideas about decorum, which Renaissance artists inherited from ancient times but Mannerists developed further. Lomazzo's organized way of describing beauty reflected the more formal and academic approaches of the late 16th century. He emphasized matching the purpose of rooms with the right kinds of painted and sculpted designs. Iconography, often complex and hard to understand, became a key feature of Mannerist styles. His other book, Idea del tempio della pittura (1590), compared artistic judgment and invention to the "four temperaments" theory of human nature, showing how individuality influenced artistic creation.
Characteristics of artworks
Mannerism was an artistic movement that opposed the classical styles of the Renaissance. At first, people viewed it positively because Vasari wrote about it in a favorable way. However, later it was seen negatively, as some believed it changed natural truth and repeated old artistic formulas. Mannerism was a time in art history with unique features that showed how art could be seen in new ways. Below is a list of specific traits that Mannerist artists used in their works.
Artists and examples of their work
Jacopo da Pontormo's artwork is one of the most important examples of Mannerism. He often painted scenes from religious stories. His work was influenced by Michelangelo, and he used shapes from sculptures in his paintings. A famous part of his style is the way he painted the eyes of his figures, making them look directly at the viewer. Pontormo cared deeply about his work and often worried about its quality. He worked slowly and carefully. His influence on later artists, like Agnolo Bronzino, helped shape the look of Mannerism.
In his painting Joseph in Egypt (1517), Pontormo showed four scenes from the Bible where Joseph reunites with his family. On the left, Joseph introduces his family to the Pharaoh of Egypt. On the right, Joseph is sitting on a bench while cherubs and other figures surround him. Above, a spiral staircase leads one of Joseph's sons to his mother. On the far right, Joseph's father, Jacob, is dying as his sons watch.
The painting uses Mannerist features, such as unusual colors like pink and blue. The scenes are not in order, and the space feels crowded. Pontormo included four stories in one image, creating a busy and complex look.
Rosso Fiorentino, who studied with Pontormo, brought Mannerism to Fontainebleau in 1530. He helped start the School of Fontainebleau, a group of French artists in the 1500s. The style from Fontainebleau spread to Northern Europe through engravings. Mannerist designs also appeared on luxury items like silver and furniture. This style used detailed symbols, exaggerated emotions, and idealized female figures with long, stretched shapes.
Agnolo Bronzino studied with Pontormo and painted in a style that was hard to attribute to other artists. He worked with Vasari on a play called The Comedy of Magicians, where he painted portraits. Bronzino became a favorite of the Medici family in 1539. His paintings often showed pale skin tones.
In his painting Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time, Bronzino painted a confusing scene. Cupid and Venus almost kiss but pause. Above them are figures like Father Time and the goddess of night. Other elements include masks, a creature with a girl's face and a serpent's body, and a man in pain. Some people think the painting warns about the dangers of syphilis or was used as a game in court.
Bronzino’s portraits are known for their elegance and detailed work. His subjects often look distant or unemotional. He also painted rich fabrics with great care. In Venus, Cupid, Folly, and Time, he used Mannerist techniques like awkward body movements and smooth, pale skin that looks like sculpture.
Alessandro Allori’s painting Susanna and the Elders (1576) shows hidden eroticism and detailed still-life elements in a crowded, twisted composition.
Jacopo Tintoretto made different contributions to Venetian painting after Titian. His style was criticized for being strange and unusual. Tintoretto used Mannerist elements, like fantasy and naturalism, in his work. He used rough brushstrokes and bright colors to create illusions.
Tintoretto’s Last Supper (1591) was painted for San Giorgio Maggiore. The scene is shown from the side, with Christ and the Apostles on one end and Judas singled out. The painting is mostly dark, with light coming from Christ’s halo and a torch above the table.
The painting shows Mannerist features, like a black background and dramatic shadows. Light focuses on Christ and the torch, creating a spotlight effect. Figures also look like they are made of smoke, adding to the mysterious atmosphere.
El Greco, a painter born in Crete, used exaggerated shapes to show religious emotion. After the realistic art of the High Renaissance, some artists began using distorted proportions and strange spaces for emotional effect. El Greco’s style was unique and not tied to any one school. His work used bright, unusual colors, stretched body shapes, strange perspectives, and confusing symbols.
El Greco’s art mixed styles from Byzantine art, Caravaggio, Parmigianino, and Venetian colors. He focused on color as a key part of his paintings. His work was in high demand, and he painted important buildings like the Colegio de la Encarnación in Madrid.
El Greco’s painting Laocoön (1610) shows the myth of Laocoön, a Greek priest who was attacked by sea serpents. The painting uses Mannerist techniques, like unusual colors and stretched, twisted figures.
Architecture
Mannerist architecture used tricks and surprising details to challenge the rules of Renaissance design. Many Flemish artists, who had studied in Italy and learned about Mannerist ideas there, helped spread these styles across Europe north of the Alps, including into architecture. During this time, architects tried new ways to use shapes and spaces to show how solid and open areas connected. The Renaissance idea of balance was replaced by more creative and free-flowing designs. Michelangelo (1475–1564), best known for his work on the Laurentian Library, was a key figure in Mannerist architecture. He created the "giant order," a tall column that ran from the bottom to the top of a building’s façade. He used this in his design for Rome’s Piazza del Campidoglio. The Herrerian style, developed in Spain during the late 1500s under King Philip II (1556–1598), was a later stage of Spanish Renaissance architecture. It became simpler over time, moving from detailed designs to more plain, decorative styles.
Before the 20th century, the term "Mannerism" had negative meanings, but today it is used to describe this historical period without judgment. Mannerist architecture also refers to a trend in the 1960s and 1970s where architects broke modernist rules while still acknowledging them. Architect Robert Venturi described Mannerism as a style that accepts traditional rules but bends them to show complexity and contradictions.
An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, located in the countryside near Rome. The increase in engravers during the 16th century helped spread Mannerist styles faster than any other style before it.
The entrance to Colditz Castle has rich, detailed designs that look like Roman architecture. This style is often used as a separate, special feature on simple, everyday walls.
From the late 1560s, many buildings in Valletta, Malta’s new capital, were built by Girolamo Cassar in the Mannerist style. These include St. John’s Co-Cathedral, the Grandmaster’s Palace, and seven original auberges. Some of Cassar’s buildings were changed later, especially during the Baroque period. However, parts like Auberge d'Aragon and the outside of St. John’s Co-Cathedral still show his original Mannerist designs.
While many styles focus on balance and harmony, Mannerism uses exaggerated and over-the-top details. It is known for being intellectual and artificial, favoring tension and instability over balance and clarity. Experts still debate how to define Mannerism and its different stages.
Northern or Antwerp Mannerism came before and was different from Italian Mannerism. In the 16th century, Antwerp developed a style that was the final stage of Early Netherlandish painting with Renaissance elements. Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles spread to England, Germany, and other parts of northern and eastern Europe.
Literature and music
Literary mannerism included writers such as Michelangelo, Clément Marot, Giovanni della Casa, Giovanni Battista Guarini, Torquato Tasso, Veronica Franco, Miguel de Cervantes, and others.
In English literature, Mannerism is often linked to the "Metaphysical poets," with John Donne being the most well-known. John Dryden, a Baroque writer, once criticized John Donne's poetry, saying that Donne used complex ideas in his love poems instead of focusing on simple, natural emotions. Dryden wrote: "He uses difficult ideas not only in his satires but also in his love poems, where simple feelings should be the focus. He confuses the minds of women with complicated philosophical thoughts instead of touching their hearts with the gentle feelings of love."
The rich musical styles of the late 16th and early 17th centuries inspired the madrigal, a popular musical form in Italy. Tim Carter explained that the madrigal, especially in its aristocratic form, reflected the stylish and clever style of Mannerism. Poets and musicians used witty ideas and creative tricks to impress those who appreciated art.
The word "Mannerism" has also been used to describe highly complex and decorative music from late 14th-century France. This period is now called the ars subtilior.
Paul Castagno's book, The Early Commedia dell'Arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context, discusses how Mannerism influenced professional theater. Castagno was the first to describe a theatrical form as Mannerist, using terms like maniera to explain the exaggerated and special effects in commedia dell'arte. His work includes visual evidence showing that artists who created images of commedia performances were connected to the Mannerist tradition.
Jacques Callot's detailed engravings show the bold and humorous themes of commedia, such as exaggerated masks and playful scenes. These themes were also seen in paintings from the second School of Fontainebleau, which had French and Flemish influences. Castagno showed how commedia characters appeared in genre paintings, linking the theater to the cultural traditions of the late 1500s.
In Mannerist art, the focus shifted from the outside design to the inner vision of the artist. This idea also appears in commedia performances, where actors use their skills and creativity without following strict rules. Arlecchino, a character in commedia, showed this by changing from kind to violent quickly, showing the mix of opposites in Mannerism. Arlecchino could move gracefully one moment and trip over his feet the next. Freed from strict rules, actors celebrated the fleeting nature of the moment, much like Benvenuto Cellini, who amazed viewers with dramatic lighting and artistic effects. In Mannerism, the way something was presented became as important as the thing itself.
Neo-Mannerism
In the 20th century, the style called Neo-Mannerism began with artist Ernie Barnes. This style was strongly affected by both the Jewish community and the African-American community. It led to an art exhibition named "The Beauty of the Ghetto," which took place from 1972 to 1979. The exhibition traveled to major cities in the United States and was shown by important people, including politicians, athletes, and celebrities. In 1974, when the exhibition was displayed at the Museum of African Art in Washington, D.C., Rep. John Conyers spoke about the exhibition’s positive message in the Congressional Record.
The Neo-Mannerism style created by Barnes includes images of people with long, stretched limbs and bodies, as well as movements that appear very exaggerated. A common feature in these artworks is the closed eyes of the subjects, which represent the idea that people often fail to see each other’s humanity. One statement about this theme says, “We look at someone and decide quickly: This person is Black, so they must be… This person lives in poverty, so they must be…”
In an interview, film director Peter Greenaway said that two artists, Federico Fellini and Bill Viola, greatly influenced his work. His creative process involves exploring the difficult challenge of combining organized collections of images with similar and computer-based systems used in movies. This approach can be described as Neo-Mannerism because it contrasts with another style called the (neo-)baroque. Greenaway compared the baroque movement, which was linked to Roman Catholicism and its ideas of heaven, to the influence of American cinema and capitalism. He said that both movements use multimedia as a tool to share political messages.
Art critic Jerry Saltz said that "Neo-Mannerism" (meaning new Mannerism) is one of several overused terms that are making the art world less creative. He described Neo-Mannerism as a style of 21st-century art made by students who have been discouraged by teachers to create work that is overly polite, copying others, and unoriginal.