The Celtic Revival, also called the Celtic Twilight, refers to a series of movements and trends in the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries that showed renewed interest in Celtic culture. Artists and writers used traditions from Gaelic literature, Welsh-language literature, and Celtic art, which historians call insular art (a style of art from Ireland and Britain during the Early Medieval period). While the revival had many different parts and occurred in several countries in Northwest Europe, its most well-known part was the Irish Literary Revival. Irish writers such as William Butler Yeats, John Millington Synge, Lady Gregory, "Æ" Russell, Edward Martyn, Alice Milligan, and Edward Plunkett (Lord Dunsany) helped people appreciate traditional Irish literature and poetry during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In some ways, the revival was a response to modernization. This was especially true in Ireland, where old traditions and modern life often seemed to conflict, and where history was broken or incomplete. According to Terry Eagleton, Ireland as a whole did not suddenly move from tradition to modernity. At times, the idealized view of the past led to incorrect portrayals, such as the promotion of images of the Irish and Scottish Highlanders as noble savages, or the belief that the Irish were a separate race, whether viewed positively or negatively.
A lasting effect of the revival was the reintroduction of the High cross, which became known as the Celtic cross. Today, the Celtic cross is a common feature in monuments and memorials around the world.
History
Research into the Gaelic and Brittonic cultures and histories of Britain and Ireland began to grow faster in the late 1700s. Scholars and historians, such as Owen Jones in Wales and Charles O'Conor in Ireland, worked to find, edit, and translate important old manuscripts. They also identified and published ancient monuments and collected stories, music, and language.
The Welsh scholar Iolo Morganwg helped increase interest in Brittonic culture by creating the Gorsedd, which later led to the Neo-druidism movement.
Interest in Scottish Gaelic culture grew during the Romantic period in the late 1700s. James Macpherson's work Ossian became famous worldwide. At the same time, Sir Walter Scott's novels and Thomas Moore's poetry and songs also gained popularity.
Across Europe, the Romantic movement inspired a renewed interest in folklore, folktales, and folk music. Even Beethoven was asked to arrange Scottish folk songs. A stronger sense of Celtic identity encouraged rising nationalism in the United Kingdom, especially in Ireland.
In the mid-1800s, the revival continued with Sir Samuel Ferguson and the Young Ireland movement promoting folk tales and histories in places with Celtic roots. At the same time, archaeologists and historians worked to better understand regional history. Interest in "Celtic" art grew, and "Celtic" designs were used in many areas, such as architecture. These designs were influenced by works like The Grammar of Ornament by Owen Jones. Copies of ancient brooches from the 7th to 9th centuries were worn by people like Queen Victoria, often made in Dublin by West & Son and others.
In Scotland, John Francis Campbell wrote Popular Tales of the West Highlands (1860–62) and The Celtic Dragon Myth (published after his death in 1911). The Edinburgh Social Union, formed in 1885, included artists and designers who wanted to revive Scottish culture using ancient myths and history. Key figures included Patrick Geddes, Robert Lorimer, and Douglas Strachan. Geddes created a community for artists in Edinburgh in the 1890s. Anna Traquair painted murals for the Hospital for Sick Children in Edinburgh. John Duncan, a major artist of the Celtic Revival, painted works like Tristan and Iseult (1912) and St Bride (1913). He helped make Dundee a center for the Celtic Revival.
The Irish Literary Revival encouraged works inspired by Irish culture rather than English culture. This revival used Irish history, myths, and folklore to strengthen Irish identity. People like Lady Gregory, W. B. Yeats, and J. M. Synge wrote about Ireland's political situation. The Gaelic Revival and Irish nationalism often overlapped, as seen in places like An Stad, a shop in Dublin where writers and leaders gathered. The Abbey Theatre became a key stage for Irish writers and playwrights.
In 1892, Sir Charles Gavan Duffy said:
"A group of young men worked to uncover Ireland's past, to teach people about the country's history, and to inspire hope and courage. They were supported by many students and others who shared their goals."
The Celtic Revival was an international movement. In the United States, Thomas Augustus "Gus" O'Shaughnessy used Irish design in his artwork, such as windows for Old Saint Patrick's Church in Chicago. Louis Sullivan, an American architect, used Celtic-inspired patterns in his buildings. In England, Mary Fraser Tytler designed Celtic reliefs for the Watts Mortuary Chapel.
The "plastic style" of early Celtic art influenced Art Nouveau. Archibald Knox, a designer from the Isle of Man, created metalwork for Liberty & Co. The Czech artist Alphonse Mucha was inspired by Celtic designs, and his work influenced O'Shaughnessy. Celtic interlace patterns remain popular in Ireland and are used in tattoos, logos, and fantasy art. The animated film The Secret of Kells (2009) features designs from the Book of Kells.
In France, Jacques Cambry wrote about Celtic landscapes. Napoleon believed the French were descended from empire-building Celts, and the Académie Celtique was founded in 1805 to study Celtic culture.
John Duncan was a leading artist of the Celtic Revival and Symbolism movements. He was inspired by the Italian Renaissance and used medieval techniques like tempera. He worked in many mediums, including stained glass and painting.
Linguistic and cultural revivals, after 1920
In 1925, Professor Roparz Hemon started a Breton-language magazine called Gwalarn. Over 19 years, Gwalarn worked to make Breton a respected language worldwide. It helped create new books in many types, like stories and plays, and translated famous books from other countries into Breton. In 1946, Al Liamm took over from Gwalarn. Other Breton-language magazines later helped build a large collection of books for a language spoken by a small group of people.
In 1977, Diwan schools were created to teach Breton through full immersion. These schools taught thousands of students from elementary school to high school. More details about education can be found in the education section.
The Asterix comic series was translated into Breton. The story says the Gaulish village where Asterix lives is in the Armorica peninsula, now called Brittany. Other popular comics, like The Adventures of Tintin, Spirou, Titeuf, Hägar the Horrible, Peanuts, and Yakari, have also been translated into Breton.
Some movies, TV shows, and radio programs are made or translated into Breton. A sitcom called Ken Tuch is in Breton. A radio station called Radio Kerne in Finistère only broadcasts in Breton. Movies like Lancelot du Lac, Shakespeare in Love, Marion du Faouet, and Sezneg, and TV shows like Columbo and Perry Mason, have been translated into Breton. Many poets, singers, and writers, including Yann-Ber Kalloc'h, Roparz Hemon, Anjela Duval, Xavier de Langlais, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Youenn Gwernig, Glenmor, and Alan Stivell, are now known worldwide for their work in Breton.
Today, Breton is the only living Celtic language not officially recognized by a national government.
The first Breton dictionary, called Catholicon, was also the first French dictionary. Created by Jehan Lagadec in 1464, it included Breton, French, and Latin. Now, bilingual dictionaries exist for Breton and languages like English, Dutch, German, Spanish, and Welsh. A new dictionary called Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here (1995) defines Breton words in Breton. The first version had about 10,000 words, and the second version (2001) had 20,000 words.
In the early 2000s, the Ofis ar Brezhoneg ("Office of the Breton Language") began efforts to use Breton daily in Brittany. These included bilingual signs, posters for events, and a system called Spilhennig to help people identify each other. The office also asked Google, Firefox, and SPIP to develop their software in Breton. In 2004, the Breton Wikipedia started, now with over 87,000 articles. In 2007, the Ofis signed an agreement with Microsoft to include Breton in its products. In 2014, Facebook added Breton as one of its 121 languages. In 2024, Google Translate added Breton using artificial intelligence.
In the early 1900s, a revival of Cornish culture began with interest in the Cornish language led by Henry Jenner and Robert Morton Nance in 1904. The Federation of Old Cornwall Societies formed in 1924 to "keep the Celtic spirit of Cornwall." The Gorseth Kernow started in 1928, and the political party Mebyon Kernow formed in 1951.
Because of efforts to teach Irish in schools and raise children with both Irish and English, more young people in Ireland and Northern Ireland now speak Irish. It is more common to hear Irish spoken in Irish cities. Some interest in learning Irish has also grown in North America.
Welsh has been spoken in Wales for a long time. By 1911, only 43.5% of the Welsh population spoke Welsh. Though the number of Welsh speakers dropped later, the language never disappeared. By the early 2000s, the number of Welsh speakers began to rise again.
A 2004 survey showed that 21.7% of Wales' population spoke Welsh, compared to 20.8% in 2001 and 18.5% in 1991. However, the 2011 census showed a slight drop to 19% of the population. The survey also found fewer Welsh speakers in areas where Welsh was once most common, like Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire. A 2013-15 survey found that 24% of people aged three and older could speak Welsh.
Historically, many Welsh people spoke only Welsh. By the late 20th century, most no longer spoke only Welsh, though some still did. Today, 16% of state school students in Wales learn through Welsh, and Welsh is a required subject in English schools until age 15-16.
Over 5,000 people in Argentina's Chubut province speak Welsh. Some areas there now use Welsh in schools.
Nova Scotia has the largest number of Scots Gaelic speakers outside Scotland.
Celtic culture revivals have spread to Northern England, including efforts to rebuild types of bagpipes like the Lancashire Great-pipe and the Northumbrian smallpipes. People are also trying to revive the Cumbric language, an old Celtic language from Northern England.
In the early 2000s, the Flag of Devon was created and adopted as part of a Celtic revival.
The Gaulish language was once widely spoken in France and other areas during the Roman Empire. Though little is known about its exact form, some people have tried to revive it. A band called Eluveitie writes songs in a reconstructed version of Gaulish.
In Auvergne, people sing songs around bonfires to honor a Celtic god. Some groups are trying to revive the ancient religion of the Gauls. Auvergne is also a center for Gaulish revival efforts, as it has many important Gaulish sites and is where the famous Gaulish leader Vercingetorix lived.
Small Celtic revival efforts exist in Galicia, Spain.