Discourse refers to the idea of conversation extended to all forms of communication. It is a key subject in social studies, with research covering areas like sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and discourse analysis. Inspired by Michel Foucault, these fields see discourse as a system of thoughts, knowledge, or communication that shapes how people understand the world. Because controlling discourse influences how the world is viewed, social theory often examines discourse to understand power dynamics. In theoretical linguistics, discourse is more specifically defined as the exchange of information through language. This idea helped develop the concept of dynamic semantics, where the meaning of words is connected to how they change the context of a conversation.

Social theory

In the humanities and social sciences, discourse refers to a formal way of thinking that can be expressed through language. Discourse sets boundaries that define what can be said about a topic. Many definitions of discourse come from the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault. In sociology, discourse is described as "any practice (in many forms) by which people give meaning to the world around them."

In political science, discourse is closely connected to politics and policy making. Different theories in various fields see discourse as related to power and the state, because controlling discourse can influence how people understand reality (for example, if a government controls the media, it shapes what people consider "true"). Discourse is unavoidable, because any use of language affects how people see the world. In other words, the chosen discourse provides the words, phrases, or style needed to communicate. For example, two different discourses can describe guerrilla movements as either "freedom fighters" or "terrorists."

In psychology, discourses are part of different types of language that both limit and enable communication—language that talks about language. This is seen in the APA's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which outlines specific terms used to describe mental health. This manual influences how professionals in psychology and psychiatry speak and act.

Modernist theorists focused on progress and believed in natural and social laws that could be used universally to develop knowledge and better understand society. These theorists were concerned with finding "truth" and "reality," aiming to create theories that were certain and predictable. Modernist theorists saw discourse as useful. They believed that changes in language and discourse were linked to progress or the need for new, more "accurate" words to describe discoveries or interests. In modernist theory, language and discourse are separated from power and ideology and instead seen as "natural" results of common usage or progress. Modernism led to ideas about rights, equality, freedom, and justice, but these ideas often ignored real differences, according to Regnier.

Structuralist theorists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Jacques Lacan, argue that all human actions and social systems are connected to language and can be understood as systems of related parts. This means that the meaning of individual parts depends on the whole system, and systems are self-contained, self-regulated, and self-changing. In other words, the structure of a system determines the meaning and function of its parts. Structuralism has helped people understand language and social systems. Saussure's theory of language highlights how meaning and signification shape human life.

After recognizing the limits of the modern era, postmodern theory emerged. Postmodern theorists rejected the idea that one theory could explain all aspects of society. Instead, they focused on the different experiences of individuals and groups, emphasizing differences over similarities.

Unlike modernist theory, postmodern theory is skeptical of universal truths and realities. It allows for individual differences and avoids the idea of social laws. Postmodern theorists stopped focusing on finding truth and instead studied how truths are created and maintained. They argued that truth and knowledge are varied, depend on context, and are shaped by history through discourses. Postmodern researchers studied discourses like texts, language, policies, and practices.

In the works of philosopher Michel Foucault, a discourse is "a group of connected statements." A statement is a language-based idea that allows people to assign meaning to words and share repeatable relationships between ideas, objects, or subjects. Connections exist between the parts of a discourse. The term "discursive formation" refers to written or spoken statements that create discourses through shared meanings. As a researcher, Foucault used discursive formation to study large groups of knowledge, such as political economy and natural history.

In The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969), a book about the study of systems of thought ("epistemes") and knowledge ("discursive formations"), Michel Foucault developed the concept of discourse. Sociologist Iara Lessa summarizes Foucault's definition of discourse as "systems of thought made up of ideas, attitudes, actions, beliefs, and practices that systematically create the subjects and the worlds they describe." Foucault examined how discourse helps society create and maintain accepted truths, as well as the power relationships between these truths. Therefore, discourse acts as a communication tool through which power relationships shape how people speak and act.

The connection between power and knowledge means that every human relationship involves a struggle for power, because power is always present and shapes what is considered true. Power is used through rules that decide what topics people can discuss, when, where, and how they can speak, and who is allowed to speak. Knowledge both creates and is created by power; Foucault used the term "power/knowledge" to show that power determines what will be known, rather than assuming individuals independently develop ideas and knowledge.

Interdiscourse studies how different discourses relate to one another, as discourses exist in connection with other discourses.

Discourse analysis

There are different types of discourse analysis, and the meaning of "discourse" changes slightly depending on the type. Usually, discourse analysis is split into two main categories: "little d" discourse and "big D" Discourse. "Little d" discourse refers to how people use language in real situations, such as during conversations. "Big D" Discourse refers to how language connects to society, politics, and culture.

Common types of discourse analysis include:

• Critical discourse analysis
• Foucauldian discourse analysis
• Conversation analysis
• Genre analysis
• Narrative analysis

Formal semantics and pragmatics

In the study of language, discourse is often seen as the way people work together to improve a shared understanding. In certain theories, like discourse representation theory, the meanings of sentences are described as tools that change or update this shared understanding.