A kenning is a type of figure of speech. It is a creative phrase that combines words to replace a simple noun. For example, the Old English kenning "whale's road" (hrón ráð) means "sea," as does "swan's road" (swanráð).

A kenning has two parts: a base-word (also called a head-word) and a determinant. In "whale's road," "road" is the base-word, and "whale's" is the determinant. This is similar to the modern English term "skyscraper," where "scraper" is the base-word and "sky" is the determinant. In some languages, kennings can include another kenning within them.

Kennings are closely connected to Old Norse–Icelandic and Old English poetry that uses repeating sounds. They were used in Icelandic poetry, such as rímur, for many years, along with related terms like heiti. While kennings are sometimes written with hyphens in English translations, Old Norse poetry did not require them to follow a specific word order. The parts of a kenning also did not need to be next to each other. Modern English lacks certain grammar rules that made this style of kenning difficult to translate. Today, kennings are rarely used in English but are still found in other Germanic languages.

Etymology

The word "kenning" is found in old writings from Snorri Sturluson's Edda, where it describes a type of poetic expression. The English use of this term comes directly from Old Norse.

The modern verb "to ken" is still used in some Scots and English dialects. It also appears in standard English in phrases like "beyond one's ken," which means "outside of someone's knowledge." Other related words include "uncanny" (meaning strange or supernatural) and "canny" (meaning clever or careful). Modern Scots uses forms like "tae ken" (to know), "kent" (knew or known), and "kennis" (knowledge).

In Old Norse, the word "kenna" meant "to know" or "to be familiar with." This word is related to similar words in other languages, such as Old English "cennan," Old Frisian "kenna," and Old High German "chennan." These words all come from an ancient language called Proto-Indo-European, which is also the source of modern words like "know," "cognition," "ignorant," and the Greek word "gnosis."

Structure

Old Norse kennings are phrases that describe things in a special way. They can be genitive phrases, like "báru fákr" (wave's horse = ship) from Þorbjörn Hornklofi's Glymdrápa 3, or compound words, like "gjálfr-marr" (sea-steed = ship) from Anon.'s Hervararkviða 27. Simple kennings use a base-word (like "fákr" for "horse") and a determinant (like "báru" for "wave") to describe something else. The determinant can be a noun in the genitive case (like "báru") placed before or after the base-word, or it can be part of a compound word.

In these examples, the base-words are "fákr" (horse) and "marr" (steed), and the determinants are "báru" (wave) and "gjálfr" (sea). The thing the kenning refers to is called its referent, which in these cases is "skip" (ship). For example, the kenning "íss rauðra randa" (icicle of red shields) has "íss" (ice or icicle) as the base-word and "rǫnd" (rim or shield) as the determinant. Its referent is "sword."

In Old Norse poetry, either part of a kenning (base-word, determinant, or both) could be a regular noun or a "poetic synonym" called a heiti. In the examples above, "fákr" and "marr" are poetic words, while the common word for "horse" in prose is "hestur."

Skalds (poets) sometimes used complex kennings where the determinant or base-word itself was another kenning. For example, "grennir gunn-más" (feeder of war-gull = feeder of raven = warrior) from Þorbjörn Hornklofi's Glymdrápa 6, and "eyðendr arnar hungrs" (destroyers of eagle's hunger = feeders of eagle = warrior) from Þorbjörn Þakkaskáld's Erlingsdrápa 1. When one kenning is inside another, the whole phrase is called "tvíkent" (twice modified).

Sometimes, the base-word of the inner kenning is added to the base-word of the whole kenning to form a compound word, like "mög-fellandi mellu" (son-slayer of giantess = slayer of giants = Thor) from Steinunn Refsdóttir's Lausavísa 2. If a kenning has more than three parts, it is called "rekit" (extended). Some kennings in skaldic poetry have up to seven parts. Snorri said that using five parts was acceptable, but using more was too extreme. The longest kenning in skaldic poetry is "nausta blakks hlé-mána gífrs drífu gim-slöngvir" (fire-brandisher of blizzard of ogress of protection-moon of steed of boat-shed = warrior) from Þórðr Sjáreksson's Hafgerðingadrápa.

Old Norse had more flexible word order than Modern English because it used prefixes and suffixes to show grammar, unlike Modern English, which relies on word order. Skalds used this flexibility to create complex phrases, sometimes placing other words between parts of a kenning or compound word. This made some texts hard to understand, but Old Norse's detailed grammar helped reduce confusion.

Old Norse kennings often followed common patterns, using the same ideas and metaphors repeatedly. For example, a leader might be called "enemy of gold" or "destroyer of arm-rings." However, some kennings were unclear, and some poets intentionally made them hard to interpret.

Kennings could also become extended metaphors, like "shields were trodden under the hard feet of the hilt" (Eyvindr Skáldaspillir's Hákonarmál 6). Snorri called these "nýgervingar" and used them in his Háttatal. These examples mix natural images with unusual word choices. Some poets also used kennings purely for decoration, even if they didn’t make sense in context.

Snorri disliked mixed metaphors, which he called "nykrat" (made monstrous), and his nephew called this practice a "fault." However, some poets still used confusing combinations of kennings and verbs. For example, "heyr jarl Kvasis dreyra" (Einarr skálaglamm's Vellekla 1) uses unusual pairings.

Sometimes, kennings repeated themselves, like "barmi dólg-svölu" (brother of hostility-swallow = brother of raven = raven) from Oddr breiðfirðingr's Illugadrápa 1. Other kennings, like "blik-meiðendr bauga láðs" (gleam-harmers of the land of rings = harmers of ring = leaders), describe people by linking them to gold or social status.

Some kennings are easy to understand, like "él-ker" (squall-vat = sky), while others rely on myths, like "Ymis haus" (Ymir's skull = sky), referencing the story of Ymir, a giant in Norse mythology. Other kennings name mythical figures, like "rimmu Yggr" (Odin of battle = warrior).

Medieval Icelandic poets even used kennings to describe Christian ideas, mixing old myths with religious themes. For example, "Þrúðr falda" (goddess of headdresses = Saint Catherine) from Kálfr Hallsson's Kátrínardrápa 4.

Kennings that repeat a characteristic, like "shield-Njörðr" (shield of Njörðr), mean "like Njörðr in that he has a shield," since Njörðr, a god, naturally has one.

Definitions

Some scholars use the term "kenning" in a wide way to describe any noun-substitute made up of two or more parts, including simple descriptive phrases (such as Old Norse "grand viðar" meaning "bane of wood" = "fire" from Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36). Others define it more narrowly, focusing only on metaphorical expressions (such as Old Norse "sól húsanna" meaning "sun of the houses" = "fire" from Snorri Sturluson: Skáldskaparmál 36). These metaphors follow a rule where "[t]he base-word identifies the referent with something it is not, except in a special relationship the poet imagines between it and the limiting word" (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253). Some scholars even exclude naturalistic metaphors like Old English "forstes bend" meaning "bond of frost" = "ice" or "winter-ġewǣde" meaning "winter-raiment" = "snow." Brodeur explains that "a metaphor is a kenning only if there is a mismatch between the referent and the base-word. The limiting word is essential because without it, the mismatch would make identification impossible" (Brodeur (1959) pp. 248–253). Descriptive phrases are common in many cultures, but kennings in this strict sense are unique to Old Norse and, to a lesser degree, Old English poetry.

Snorri's use of "kenning" appears to follow a broader definition: "Snorri uses 'kenning' to describe a structural device where a person or object is named through a descriptive phrase with two or more terms (such as a noun with one or more genitives, a compound noun, or a mix of these)" (Faulkes (1998 a), p. xxxiv). In Skáldskaparmál, the term applies to non-metaphorical phrases, such as: "That kenning, which was written before, calling Christ the king of men, any king can have that kenning." In Háttatal, it is also used for phrases like: "It is a kenning to call battle 'spear-crash'…"

Snorri's term "kend heiti" (qualified terms) seems to mean the same as "kenningar," though Brodeur uses it more specifically for periphrastic epithets that do not fit his strict definition of a kenning.

Sverdlov examines kennings from a linguistic structure perspective. He notes that the modifying part in Germanic compound words can be a genitive or a root, and he observes similarities between genitive determinants and the modifying parts in Old Norse compound words. For example, neither can be modified by a separate adjective. According to this view, all kennings are formal compounds, even though they often include tmesis (the separation of parts in a compound word).

Old Norse kennings in context

In the following dróttkvætt stanza, the Norwegian skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir (died around 990) compares the greed of King Harald Greycloak (Old Norse: Haraldr) to the generosity of his predecessor, Haakon the Good (Old Norse: Hákon):

Bárum, Ullr, of alla, ímunlauks, á hauka fjöllum Fýrisvalla fræ Hákonar ævi; nú hefr fólkstríðir Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr í móður holdi mellu dolgs of folginn —Eyvindr skáldaspillir, Lausavísa

A literal translation shows several kennings: "Ullr of the war-leek! We carried the seed of Fýrisvellir on our hawk-mountains during all of Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden the flour of Fróði's hapless slaves in the flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess."

This could be paraphrased as: "O warrior, we carried gold on our arms during all of King Haakon's life; now the enemy of the people has hidden gold in the earth." The kennings are:

• "Ullr … ímunlauks" means "warrior," combining Ullr, the name of a god, and ímun-laukr, meaning "sword" (literally "war-leek"). In Norse poetry, the name of a god is often paired with another word to create a kenning for a type of person. Here, "Ullr of the sword" refers to a warrior. The term "war-leek" is a kenning for "sword," comparing the sword's shape to that of a leek. The warrior mentioned may be King Harald.

• "Hauka fjöllum" means "arms," combining hauka ("hawk") and fjöll ("mountain"). This refers to the sport of falconry, where a bird of prey is held on the arm of the falconer. In poetry, "hawk" paired with a geographic term like "mountain" becomes a kenning for "arm."

• "Fýrisvalla fræ" means "gold," combining Fýrisvellir (the plains of the river Fýri) and fræ ("seed"). This alludes to a legend in Skáldskaparmál and Hrólfs saga kraka, where King Hrolf and his men scattered gold on the plains of the river Fýri near Gamla Uppsala to slow their pursuers.

• "Fróða fáglýjaðra þýja meldr" means "flour of Fróði's hapless slaves," another kenning for "gold." It references the Grottasöngr legend.

• "Móður hold mellu dolgs" means "flesh of the mother of the enemy of the giantess," referring to "earth." In Norse mythology, the earth is personified as the goddess Jörð, the mother of Thor, who is an enemy of the jǫtnar (giants).

Old English and other kennings

The use of kennings, which are special types of compound phrases, has been traditionally linked to Germanic languages. However, this idea is debated because kennings are mostly found in Old Norse and Old English poetry, not in other early Germanic languages. One of the earliest known kennings for "gold" is "walha-kurna," meaning "Roman/Gallic grain," found on a Proto-Norse runic inscription on the Tjurkö (I)-C bracteate. Kennings are rarely found in surviving examples of continental West Germanic poetry. The Old Saxon Heliand includes only one kenning: "lîk-hamo," meaning "body-raiment" for "body" (Heliand 3453 b). This phrase is also common in West Germanic and North Germanic prose, such as Old English "līchama," Old High German "lîchamo," Dutch "lichaam," Old Icelandic "líkamr," and Swedish "lekamen."

Old English kennings are typically simple, with two parts. Examples for "sea" include "seġl-rād" ("sail-road") from Beowulf (1429 b), "swan-rād" ("swan-road") from Beowulf (200 a), "bæð-weġ" ("bath-way") from Andreas (513 a), "hrōn-rād" ("whale-road") from Beowulf (10), and "hwæl-weġ" ("whale-way") from The Seafarer (63 a). Many Old English kennings use compound words where the first part is not changed, such as "heofon-candel" ("sky-candle") for "the sun" in Exodus (115 b). Kennings using genitive phrases (showing possession) also appear but are uncommon, like "heofones ġim" ("heaven's gem") for "the sun" in The Phoenix (183).

Old English poets sometimes listed synonyms next to each other, including kennings, alongside the direct meaning. For example, in Beowulf (456), the line reads: "Hrōðgar maþelode, helm Scyldinga…"

Old Frisian also used kennings, though less frequently. In legal texts about protecting children and pregnant women, the term "bēnenaburcht" ("fortress of the bones") was used to refer to "womb."

While the term "kenning" is not commonly used for non-Germanic languages, similar poetic techniques appear in Biblical poetry through parallelism. For example, in Genesis 49:11, "blood of grapes" is used as a kenning for "wine," and in Job 15:14, "born of woman" is a parallel for "man."

Modern usage

Figures of speech similar to kennings appear in Modern English, both in books and everyday language. These are often used with other poetic techniques. For example, the song "The Sun and the Rain" by Madness includes the line "standing up in the falling-down," where "the falling-down" means rain and is placed next to "standing up." Some modern English writers have tried using phrases that are like kennings. In his 1950 novella Burning Bright, John Steinbeck used compound phrases such as "wife-loss," "friend-right," and "laughter-starving," which are similar to Old English kennings. According to Steinbeck's biographer, Jay Parini, these phrases were intended to be creative but came across as unusual and strange.

Kennings are still used in German, such as "Drahtesel" (wire-donkey) for bicycle, "Feuerstuhl" (fire-chair) for motorcycle, and "Stubentiger" (chamber-tiger) for cat. The poet Seamus Heaney often used kennings in his writing, such as "bone-house" to describe a skeleton.