Literature refers to any group of written works. It is also used to describe writings that are considered an art form, such as novels, plays, and poems. Literature includes both printed and digital writing. In recent centuries, the definition has grown to include oral literature, much of which has been written down. Literature helps record, preserve, and share knowledge and entertainment. It can also serve social, psychological, spiritual, or political purposes.

Literary criticism is one of the oldest areas of study in schools and universities. It focuses on the artistic value or importance of specific written works. The study of books and other texts as physical objects or traditions is covered by textual criticism or the history of the book. The term "literature," when used as an art form, is sometimes the same as literary fiction, which is fiction created to achieve artistic value. However, it can also include works from non-fiction genres, such as biographies, diaries, memoirs, letters, and essays. Under this broader definition, literature includes non-fiction books, articles, or other written information about a specific topic.

Advances in printing technology have made it easier to share and spread written works. The digital age has made it harder to distinguish between online electronic literature and other modern media forms.

Definitions

The meaning of literature has changed over time. In Western Europe before the 18th century, literature meant all books and writing. Today, it includes a wide range of works, such as popular and minority genres, in addition to traditional, well-known texts. The term also applies to non-written works, like "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate culture."

The word "literature" comes from the Latin words literatura or litteratura, which meant "learning, writing, grammar," or "writing formed with letters," from the Latin litera or littera, meaning "letter." Despite this, the term has also been used for spoken or sung texts. Literature is often called "writing," especially creative writing, and sometimes described as "the craft of writing" or simply "the craft." Syd Field referred to screenwriting as "a craft that occasionally rises to the level of art."

A value judgment definition of literature considers it to include only high-quality writing that is part of the belles-lettres ("fine writing") tradition. For example, the 1910–1911 Encyclopædia Britannica defined literature as "the best expression of the best thought reduced to writing."

History

The word "literature" can be confusing because it comes from the Latin word littera, meaning "letter" or "writing." Some people suggest using terms like "oral forms" or "oral genres" instead, but the word "literature" is still widely used.

Australian Aboriginal culture has relied on oral traditions and oral histories for thousands of years. A study from February 2020 found that the Budj Bim and Tower Hill volcanoes erupted between 34,000 and 40,000 years ago. This discovery supports the idea that humans lived in Victoria, Australia, at least that long ago. It also matches the oral histories of the Gunditjmara people, who tell stories about volcanic eruptions. An axe found under volcanic ash in 1947 showed that people lived in the area before the Tower Hill eruption.

Oral traditions, like storytelling and songs, have been used by people around the world for a very long time. Modern archaeology has found evidence that many cultures preserved and shared knowledge through oral traditions. For example, the Judeo-Christian Bible has roots in oral storytelling. Medieval European scribes wrote down stories that were once performed. Ancient Greek pottery shows patterns similar to those in the oral stories of Homer.

The earliest poetry was likely recited or sung to help people remember history, family lines, and laws. In Asia, ancient Indian religions passed down myths, folklore, and scriptures through oral traditions. These stories were preserved using special memory techniques.

Early Buddhist texts are also believed to have been shared orally. Some scholars compare oral traditions in different cultures and note that the Vedic texts in India are too consistent and detailed to have been passed down without writing. According to some experts, these texts likely used both oral and written methods.

In ancient Greece, many early works were oral. Homer’s famous poems were created, performed, and shared orally. Storytellers often changed names in their tales to make them more relatable to local audiences. Some scholars believe that religious traditions in ancient Greece and Rome were passed down orally, though others disagree.

Before Europeans arrived, Native North American cultures did not use writing systems. Instead, they relied on oral storytelling to share history, knowledge, and social practices. Stories often taught lessons about morality, survival, and community. For example, Inuit parents might tell a story about a sea monster to keep children safe near water.

Public speaking, or oratory, was once considered a form of literature. From ancient Greece to the late 1800s, speaking skills were a key part of education for people like lawyers, politicians, and poets.

In Mesopotamia, around 4000 BCE, trade and government became too complex for people to remember everything. Writing was developed to keep records. Similar needs in ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica also led to the creation of writing systems. Over time, writing helped create legal systems, religious texts, and scientific methods.

Ancient Egyptian and Sumerian literature are among the oldest in the world. Egyptian writing often used verse, and by the Old Kingdom (2600–2200 BCE), stories, letters, and poems were common. Narrative literature, like stories with characters and plots, became more common during the Middle Kingdom (2100–1700 BCE).

Many early works, even stories, had hidden lessons or moral messages. For example, the Panchatantra, an Indian text from around 200 BCE to 300 CE, was based on older oral stories. Drama and satire grew as cities developed, giving more people access to literature. In East Asia, aristocrats collected songs and poems, such as the Shijing or Book of Songs (1046–600 BCE).

In ancient China, early writing focused on philosophy, history, and poetry. China invented paper and woodblock printing, which helped spread literature. Important works from the Hundred Schools of Thought period (770–221 BCE) include Confucian, Daoist, and Legalist texts, as well as military writings like The Art of War by Sun Tzu and historical records by Sima Qian. Chinese literature often included detailed records of events, such as the Zuo Zhuan, a historical text from the 5th century BCE.

In ancient India, stories were first shared orally. Early forms of literature included plays, fables, and epic poems. Sanskrit literature began with the Vedas, religious texts from around 1500–1000 BCE, and continued with epic stories like the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Study and criticism

A key question in literary theory is "what is literature?" – many modern scholars and theorists believe either that "literature" cannot be clearly defined or that it refers to any use of language.

Literary fiction is a term used to describe stories that explore aspects of what it means to be human, and may include messages about society. It is often considered to have more artistic value than genre fiction, especially types that are focused on commercial success. However, this idea has been debated in recent years, as universities now study genre fiction seriously.

The following quote, from British author William Boyd about short stories, could also apply to all forms of written fiction:

[Short stories] seem to answer something deep within our nature, as if, for the time they are read, something special has been created. These stories take from our experiences, offer a way to understand our shared, difficult journey through life, and give us a temporary sense of meaning.

The best works of literature are recognized each year by the Nobel Prize in Literature. This award is given to an author from any country who, in the words of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, has "produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction."

Some researchers believe that literary fiction can help with a person's emotional growth. Psychologists have also used literature as a way to help people with emotional challenges. Psychologist Hogan argues that the time and feelings a person spends trying to understand a character’s situation in literature can be valuable. Literature can also bring people together by creating shared emotions, help readers learn about different cultures, and introduce them to new experiences. For example, one study found that literary texts containing familiar cultural values helped improve the performance of students from minority groups.

Psychologist Maslow’s ideas help literary critics understand how characters in literature reflect their own culture and history. His theory suggests that literature can support a person’s efforts to achieve their full potential.

The influence of religious texts

Religion has greatly influenced literature, as seen in important religious books such as the Vedas, the Torah, the Bible, and the Quran.

The King James Version of the Bible is often described as "the most important version of the most important book in the world, in what is now its most important language," "the most important book in English religion and culture," and "perhaps the most famous book in the English-speaking world." This is mainly because of its beautiful writing style and how widely it was shared. Some well-known atheists, like Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins, have praised the King James Version as "a major step in improving English literature" and "a great literary work." Dawkins also said that someone who speaks English but has never read the King James Bible "is almost like a barbarian."

In societies where religious teachings are very important, and where religious groups control reading and writing or decide what can be published (as happened in Europe during the Middle Ages), religious themes often appear in many of the books those societies create or keep. The careful study of religious texts has also helped create methods and ideas used in the study of literature.

Types

Poetry is often different from prose because it uses more of the beauty and sound in language, such as repeating sounds (alliteration), matching vowel sounds (assonance), rhyming words, and a pattern of beats (rhythm). Poetry is also written in lines and verses, not paragraphs. More recently, poetry has used special formatting on the page. This difference is not always clear because some forms mix poetry and prose, like digital poetry, sound poetry, concrete poetry, and prose poems. Also, prose can have rhythm, as noted by Abram Lipsky, who said that "prose is not distinguished from poetry by lack of rhythm" is an "open secret."

Before the 19th century, poetry was often thought of as writing in rhythmic lines, such as "any subject made of rhythm or verses." This idea may have come from Aristotle’s Poetics. Before the 19th century, "poetry" was more of a general term for creative or persuasive art than a strict rule about verse. Poetry may have existed before writing, as early works were passed down through spoken traditions, making it the oldest form of literature.

Prose usually uses fewer of the beauty and sound in language than poetry. However, modern writing, like free verse and prose poetry, has made the difference between poetry and prose less clear. Poet T.S. Eliot said that while "the difference between verse and prose is clear, the difference between poetry and prose is not." Some works, like Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin, are novels written in poetry instead of prose.

In ancient Greece, formal prose was not developed until the classical period, according to Richard Graff. Latin had a major influence on prose in Europe. Cicero, a famous Roman speaker, helped shape how Latin was used. Latin was the common language for educated Europeans for many years, and important works by Descartes, Bacon, and Spinoza were written in Latin. Some of the last major works in Latin prose were by Swedenborg, Linnaeus, Euler, Gauss, and Newton.

A novel is a long story written in prose. The word "novel" came from Romance languages in the late 15th century, originally meaning "news." A "romance" is a similar long story in prose or verse, often focusing on unusual events. In novels, events usually match everyday life. In many European languages, "novel" and "romance" are the same word, showing their close connection.

Although there were earlier forms of storytelling, the modern novel became popular around the 18th century. At first, it was criticized, but now it is one of the most important types of literature. A novella is a short story that is longer than a short story but shorter than a novel, usually between 17,000 and 40,000 words.

Defining a "short story" is tricky because it is hard to tell it apart from other short narratives, like parts of the Bible or stories by Edgar Allan Poe. Graphic novels and comic books use pictures, dialogue, and text to tell stories. Electronic literature is written only for digital devices.

Common non-fiction examples include essays, travel writing, biographies, journalism, letters, diaries, history, philosophy, and scientific writing. Non-fiction can be part of literature if it is well-written and creative. Drama is writing meant to be performed. It is combined with music and dance in opera and musical theater. A play is a written story for a stage performance, mostly made of dialogue. A "closet drama" is written to be read, not performed. Most plays used verse until recently.

Greek drama is the oldest form of drama we know about. It was performed at religious and public events, often based on history or myths. In the 20th century, scripts for radio, television, and film were added to drama.

Law

The law and literature movement studies how law and literature are connected in different areas of study.

Copyright is a type of special right that allows the owner to copy a creative work, such as a book, painting, or song, for a limited time. This right protects the way an idea is expressed in a creative work, not the idea itself.

Since at least 1710, copyright law has protected literary works from being copied without permission. Copyright law defines literary works as any written, spoken, or sung work, including tables, computer programs, and databases. Literary works also include all written works, except dramatic or musical works.

The copyright law in the United States has a long and complex history, beginning during the colonial period. It became a federal law in 1790 with the Copyright Act. This law has been updated many times, including a major change in 1976.

The copyright law in the European Union applies to all countries in the Union. While copyright rules are similar across the Union, some differences exist between countries. These rules were created through laws called directives, which each member country must include in its own laws. Important directives include the Copyright Term Directive, the Information Society Directive, and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market. Copyright in the Union also depends on international agreements, such as the TRIPS Agreement and the Berne Convention.

Japan joined the original Berne Convention in 1899, which means its copyright law follows most international rules. This agreement protected works for 50 years after the author’s death (or 50 years after publication for unknown authors or companies). In 2004, Japan extended this period to 70 years for movies. In 2018, Japan applied the 70-year rule to all works due to the Trans-Pacific Partnership. This change does not affect works that had already entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018.

Censorship of literature is used by governments, religious groups, and schools to control what can be written, spoken, or performed. These groups often ban books for political reasons or because they address controversial topics like race or sex.

A well-known example of censorship is the novel Ulysses by James Joyce. Russian-American writer Vladimir Nabokov called it a "divine work of art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th-century prose. The book was banned in the United States from 1921 to 1933 because it was considered too explicit. Today, it is a key text in English literature classes around the world.

Awards

There are many awards that honor accomplishments and contributions in literature. Because literature is so varied, these awards usually focus on specific areas such as form, genre, language, nationality, and type of work, like awards for first-time writers or debut novels.

The Nobel Prize in Literature is one of six Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobel's will in 1895. It is given to an author based on their overall body of work, not for a single piece of writing. Other literary prizes open to all nationalities include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Award, Guardian First Book Award, and the Franz Kafka Prize.