Satire is a type of creative work in visual, literary, and performing arts. It is often written as fiction, though sometimes it is non-fiction. Satire uses humor to point out problems, such as bad behaviors, mistakes, or unfair treatment by people, groups, or governments. The goal is usually to highlight these issues so that they can be improved. While satire is funny, it often aims to help society by showing what is wrong. Satire can also make fun of common ideas in art and movies. A key part of satire is the use of strong irony or sarcasm, as noted by writer Northrop Frye, who said, "in satire, irony is militant." Other methods used include copying styles, exaggerating, comparing things, and using words with double meanings. This kind of sharp irony or sarcasm may seem to accept the problems it is pointing out, even while criticizing them.
Satire appears in many forms, such as internet memes, books, plays, songs, movies, TV shows, and other media.
Etymology and roots
The word "satire" comes from the Latin words "satur" and the phrase "lanx satura." The word "satur" meant "full," but when combined with "lanx," the meaning changed to "a mix of different things." The phrase "lanx satura" literally means "a full dish with many kinds of fruits." However, the use of the word "lanx" in this phrase is debated by scholar B.L. Ullman.
The word "satura," as used by Quintilian, referred only to a specific type of Roman poetry called verse satire. This form had strict rules, including the use of a meter called hexameter. Quintilian claimed that this type of satire was uniquely Roman ("satura tota nostra est"). He acknowledged Greek satire but did not label it as such at the time. Today, however, Greek satire is often linked to the works of Aristophanes, known for his Old Comedy. The first person to use the term "satire" in a broader, modern sense was Apuleius.
To Quintilian, satire was a strict form of writing, but the term later expanded beyond its original meaning. Robert Elliott explains that once a word is used metaphorically, it often gains new meanings. The Latin word "satura" was broadened by borrowing from the Greek word "satyros" (meaning "satyr") and its related forms. This led to the English word "satire" coming from "satura," while words like "satirize" and "satiric" have Greek origins. By the 4th century AD, writers of satires were called "satyricus." For example, St. Jerome was once called a "satyricus scriptor in prosa" ("a satirist in prose"). Over time, the spelling of the word changed, such as "satura" becoming "satyra," and in England, it was later written as "satyre."
The word "satire" comes from "satura," and its origin was not connected to the Greek mythological figure of the satyr. In the 17th century, scholar Isaac Casaubon was the first to challenge the belief that "satire" derived from "satyr," correcting a long-held misunderstanding.
Humour
Satire has rules that require it to do more than simply make people laugh. Even if something is very funny, it is not true satire unless it also makes someone feel a little uncomfortable while laughing.
Laughter is not always needed for satire. Some forms of satire are not meant to be funny at all. However, not all humor about topics like politics, religion, or art is considered satire, even if it uses techniques like irony, parody, or exaggerated performances.
Even light-hearted satire often leaves a serious message. The Ig Nobel Prize organizers explain this idea as making people laugh first and then making them think deeply afterward.
Social and psychological functions
Satire and irony have been seen as powerful tools for understanding society, often called the oldest way to study human groups. They help reveal a group's shared thoughts and feelings, its values, and the structures of power in a society. Some writers believe satire is more effective than non-artistic fields like history or anthropology. For example, in ancient Greece, the philosopher Plato once recommended the plays of Aristophanes to a friend who wanted to learn about Athenian society.
Throughout history, satire has helped people criticize and mock leaders in politics, religion, and other powerful areas. It challenges public discussions and the shared beliefs of a society, acting as a way to balance power by questioning leaders and authorities. For instance, satire can push governments to explain, change, or create new policies. Satire's role is to point out problems and contradictions, but it does not need to fix them. Karl Kraus is an example of a satirist who challenged public discourse in history.
Because of its role, satire has often been allowed to mock important people and institutions in many societies. The urge to use satire, along with its traditions, helps reduce social tension. For example, ritual clowns express negative feelings in a way that helps a society return to balance and stability, which can be harmed by strict rules.
The way political satire is treated in a society shows how open or closed that society is, as well as how much freedom and rights people have. In totalitarian systems, any criticism, especially satire, is often banned. In the Soviet Union, for example, writers like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov faced pressure from the government for their work. While everyday life satire was allowed, political satire was limited to jokes and stories that mocked leaders like Leonid Brezhnev, who was known for his narrow-mindedness and love of awards. A well-known satirist in the USSR was Arkady Raikin.
Classifications
Satire is a type of writing that is hard to describe and group into categories. It has many different forms.
Satirical writing can often be divided into three main types: Horatian, Juvenalian, and Menippean.
Horatian satire is named after the Roman writer Horace, who lived from 65 to 8 BCE. This type of satire gently makes fun of problems in society using light-hearted and kind humor. Horace wrote poems called Satires to laugh at the popular ideas and beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece. He avoided being harsh or angry. Instead, he used humor and clever jokes to point out silly or foolish behaviors. Horatian satire focuses on making fun of human mistakes and foolishness, not serious harm. It uses wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humor. Its tone is friendly and understanding, which is common in today’s world. The goal of Horatian satire is to make people laugh and feel better, not to anger them. It reminds people to take life less seriously and makes them smile.
Juvenalian satire is named after the Roman writer Juvenal, who lived from the late first century to the early second century AD. This type of satire is more harsh and angry than Horatian satire. Juvenal disagreed with the ideas of public leaders and institutions in the Roman Empire. He used satire to strongly criticize them. He exaggerated and made fun of his targets to show them as terrible or useless. Juvenal’s satire focuses on making fun of society’s problems in a rough and mean way. It often uses irony, sarcasm, and strong criticism. Juvenalian satire is more serious and less focused on humor. It is often used in political satire that strongly criticizes society. A Juvenalian satirist wants to change society because they believe their targets are harmful or wrong. They use exaggeration to hurt the reputation or power of their opponents. Jonathan Swift, a famous writer, used Juvenalian techniques to criticize English society.
In theater history, there has always been a debate about whether comedy should focus on serious issues or just be fun. Max Eastman described satire as a range from very sharp (called "hot-end") to very mild (called "violet-end"). He used the word "kidding" for humor that is not serious. Nobel Prize-winning playwright Dario Fo explained the difference between satire and teasing, which he called sfottò. Teasing is not serious; it only makes fun of a person’s appearance or habits. It makes people feel sorry for the powerful person being teased. Satire, on the other hand, uses humor to challenge power and unfairness. It has a moral purpose and makes people angry at its targets. Fo said real satire causes strong reactions from powerful people, and the more they try to stop it, the more effective it is. Historically, powerful people have liked harmless jokes but have tried to stop real satire.
Teasing (sfottò) is an old form of comedy that does not challenge power. It includes gentle jokes, friendly mockery, and simple fun. Teasing focuses on a person’s looks, habits, or speech, but it never criticizes their actions, beliefs, or power. It makes powerful people seem more human and gain sympathy for them. For example, Hermann Göring, a powerful figure, used jokes about himself to appear more human.
Satire often focuses on topics like politics, religion, and sex. These subjects are important to society and often taboo. Politics is the most common topic in satire. Satire about religion criticizes religious beliefs, and satire about sex may overlap with other types of humor.
Scatology, or jokes about bodily functions, has been linked to satire since ancient times. It is connected to the grotesque, which is a type of humor that uses exaggerated or strange images. In satire, comparing people or institutions to waste or feces shows their uselessness or corruption. Some cultures use rituals involving eating filth or sin-eating to deal with death or guilt. Satire about death overlaps with dark humor and jokes about serious topics.
Satire can also be grouped by its focus: political satire, religious satire, and satire of manners. Political satire, also called topical satire, criticizes politics. Satire of manners, also called satire of everyday life, criticizes social behavior. Religious satire targets religious beliefs. Comedy of manners, which began in British theater in 1620, focuses on the lives of the wealthy without criticizing them.
Satire can also be described by its tone: wit, ridicule, irony, sarcasm, cynicism, and harsh criticism.
Reflexive humor is a type of humor where the person telling the joke makes fun of themselves or their group. The audience’s understanding of the context is important for the joke to work. Satire is not only in writing. In cultures without written language, it appears in rituals, folk stories, and trickster tales. It also appears in art, music, dance, cartoons, and graffiti. Examples include Dada art, Pop Art, music by Gilbert and Sullivan, and punk rock. In modern media, satire is common in television, movies, and online content.
Development
One of the earliest examples of satire, called The Satire of the Trades, comes from Egyptian writing around the start of the second millennium BC. This text seems to be written for students who are tired of studying. It argues that being a scribe is not only useful but also better than the lives of ordinary people. Scholars like Helck believe the text was meant to be taken seriously.
A piece called The Papyrus Anastasi I, from the late second millennium BC, includes a satirical letter. It first praises the person it is written to but then mocks their limited knowledge and achievements.
The Greeks did not have a word for "satire," though they used terms like cynicism and parody. Modern critics consider the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the most famous early satirists. His plays often criticized politics and society, especially targeting powerful figures like Cleon in The Knights. Aristophanes faced persecution for his work. His plays often included images of filth and disease. His style influenced the Greek dramatist Menander, who wrote Drunkenness, a play that criticized the politician Callimedon.
The oldest form of satire still used today is Menippean satire, created by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost, but examples from his followers mix serious and mocking ideas in dialogues and include parodies. Like Aristophanes’ plays, Menippean satire often used images of filth and disease.
In China, satire is called fengci (諷刺). It appears as early as the time of Confucius, mentioned in the Book of Odes (Shijing). It meant "to criticize through a poem." Before the Qin dynasty, schools of thought used short stories called yuyan (寓言), or "entrusted words," to explain ideas. These stories often had satirical content. The Daoist text Zhuangzi first defined yuyan. However, during the Qin and Han dynasties, yuyan declined because rulers like Qin Shi Huang and Han Wudi persecuted dissent and limited free speech.
The first Roman to discuss satire was Quintilian, who created the term to describe the writings of Gaius Lucilius. The most famous Roman satirists were Horace and Juvenal, who lived during the early Roman Empire. Other Roman satirists included Gaius Lucilius and Persius. Their satire included exaggerated, humorous writing with little actual mockery. Horace criticized Augustus using subtle, ironic language. In contrast, the 6th-century-BC poet Hipponax wrote satirical poems so harsh that some offended people committed suicide.
In the second century AD, Lucian wrote True History, a satirical book mocking unrealistic travel stories by writers like Ctesias, Iambulus, and Homer. He claimed he had no real knowledge but would tell lies anyway. He described wild, impossible stories, such as interplanetary travel and life inside a giant whale, to highlight the absurdity of other books like Indica and The Odyssey.
Medieval Arabic poetry included a satirical genre called hija. The writer Al-Jahiz introduced satire into Arabic prose in the 9th century. He used humor and witty observations to make serious topics more engaging. For example, he joked about human penis size by comparing it to a mule’s, saying, "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, the mule would belong to the noble Quraysh tribe." A similar joke appears in the Arabian Nights story "Ali with the Large Member."
In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poems by As-Salami and Abu Dulaf. As-Salami praised Abu Dulaf’s knowledge but mocked his abilities, and Abu Dulaf responded with satire. Another example was the poet Jarir, who called Farazdaq "a transgressor of the Sharia," and later poets used the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.
After Aristotle’s Poetics was translated into Arabic, the terms "comedy" and "satire" became similar in the medieval Islamic world. Islamic thinkers like Al-Farabi and Averroes linked comedy to satirical poetry like hija and saw it as "the art of criticism," not as cheerful stories. Later, in the 12th century, the term "comedy" took on new meanings in European literature.
In the 14th century, the Persian writer Ubayd Zakani introduced satire into Persian literature. His work included political and bawdy verses, often debated for their references to homosexual practices. His famous work, Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), was a political satire. Other Persian writers, like Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi, also wrote notable satires between 1905 and 1911.
In the Early Middle Ages, satirical songs by wandering poets, collected in Carmina Burana, were popular. These songs were later used in a 20th-century musical by Carl Orff. Satirical poetry was common, but few examples survived. With the rise of vernacular literature in the 12th century, satire returned, especially in works by Chaucer. Moral satire, which mocked bad behavior in Christian terms, was more accepted than other forms. Examples include Livre des Manières by Étienne de Fougères and some of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
In the High Middle Ages, the story Reynard the Fox, written by Willem die Madoc maecte, was a popular satire of the class system. It used animals to represent different social classes, such as lions for nobles, who were shown as greedy but weak. The story remained popular through the early modern period, with a Dutch version called Van den vos Reynaerde.
Techniques
Literary satire often uses ideas and methods from older satirical works, including familiar themes, situations, attitudes, and ways of speaking. Exaggeration is a common technique used in satire to highlight problems or behaviors. Another technique is diminution, which involves making something seem smaller or less important to achieve a similar effect.
Legal status
Satire, because of its role in society and its nature, has often been allowed to criticize important people and organizations without facing legal consequences in many countries. In Germany, Japan, and Italy, satire is protected by their constitutions.
Satire is part of the area of art and artistic expression, which means it has more lenient legal rules compared to freedom of information related to journalism. In some countries, a specific "right to satire" is recognized, and its legal limits are broader than the "right to report" in journalism or the "right to criticize." Satire is protected not only by freedom of speech laws but also by laws that support cultural, scientific, and artistic creation.
In September 2017, The Juice Media received an email from the Australian National Symbols Officer asking them to stop using a satirical logo called the "Coat of Harms," which was based on the Australian Coat of Arms. This request came after complaints from members of the public. At the same time, a bill was introduced to the Australian Parliament in September 2017 to change the Criminal Code Act 1995. If passed, the new law could lead to prison sentences of 2 to 5 years for those who broke its rules.
By June 2018, the Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017 was still being reviewed in the Australian Senate. The third reading of the bill took place on May 10, 2018.
Censorship and criticism
Satire often uses harsh, sharp, or painful language to criticize its target. Because satire mixes anger and humor, and because it raises questions about difficult or controversial topics, it can cause strong emotional reactions.
Satire is based on irony or sarcasm, which can make it hard for people to understand. One common mistake is confusing the person who creates satire with the character they portray.
People often misunderstand satire and react strongly. Some may say it lacks good taste or claim it is not funny. Others may believe the satirist agrees with the ideas or people being mocked. For example, when Jonathan Swift wrote A Modest Proposal, many people thought he was seriously suggesting eating children to solve poverty, not realizing it was satire. After the 9/11 attacks, some people in the United States thought satire was inappropriate, even though it was meant to comment on serious issues.
Some people criticize Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn for being racist, but they miss the fact that Twain used the book to satirize racism and other issues. A similar misunderstanding happened with the character Alf Garnett in the British TV show Till Death Us Do Part, who was meant to mock racism but was seen as a hero by those who shared his views.
The Australian show The Chaser's War on Everything faced criticism for a sketch that criticized people who avoid donating to charities. Many believed the show was attacking the Make a Wish Foundation or children with serious illnesses. The Prime Minister at the time, Kevin Rudd, said the show’s actions were unacceptable, and the show was suspended for two weeks.
The Romantic movement once believed satire was not important enough to study seriously. This belief still affects how some people view humor and satire today, even though they are important for understanding human behavior.
Satire often avoids censorship because it criticizes indirectly. However, powerful people who feel attacked may try to stop it. For example, the ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes was punished by a political leader named Cleon.
In 1599, church leaders in England banned verse satire, ordering some books to be burned. This rule, called the Bishops' Ban of 1599, also required approval from the Queen’s government before publishing histories or plays. The reasons for the ban are unclear, but it may have been linked to past conflicts involving satire.
In 2005, a Danish newspaper published cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad, leading to global protests and violence. Many countries and leaders defended satire as part of free speech. In 2006, the film Borat faced criticism, even though its creator, Sacha Baron Cohen, is Jewish. The film was a response to a dispute with the government of Kazakhstan.
In 2008, a South African cartoonist named Zapiro drew a controversial image of the president, Jacob Zuma, which led to the removal of his shows from television. In 2009, Samsung sued a journalist in South Korea for $1 million over a satirical article. In 2015, the UK Independence Party asked police to investigate the BBC for jokes about its leader, but the request was denied.
Date
Satire is a type of creative work in visual, literary, and performing arts. It is often written as fiction, though sometimes it is non-fiction. Satire uses humor to point out problems, such as bad behaviors, mistakes, or unfair treatment by people, groups, or governments. The goal is usually to highlight these issues so that they can be improved. While satire is funny, it often aims to help society by showing what is wrong. Satire can also make fun of common ideas in art and movies. A key part of satire is the use of strong irony or sarcasm, as noted by writer Northrop Frye, who said, "in satire, irony is militant." Other methods used include copying styles, exaggerating, comparing things, and using words with double meanings. This kind of sharp irony or sarcasm may seem to accept the problems it is pointing out, even while criticizing them.
Satire appears in many forms, such as internet memes, books, plays, songs, movies, TV shows, and other media.
Etymology and roots
The word "satire" comes from the Latin words "satur" and the phrase "lanx satura." The word "satur" meant "full," but when combined with "lanx," the meaning changed to "a mix of different things." The phrase "lanx satura" literally means "a full dish with many kinds of fruits." However, the use of the word "lanx" in this phrase is debated by scholar B.L. Ullman.
The word "satura," as used by Quintilian, referred only to a specific type of Roman poetry called verse satire. This form had strict rules, including the use of a meter called hexameter. Quintilian claimed that this type of satire was uniquely Roman ("satura tota nostra est"). He acknowledged Greek satire but did not label it as such at the time. Today, however, Greek satire is often linked to the works of Aristophanes, known for his Old Comedy. The first person to use the term "satire" in a broader, modern sense was Apuleius.
To Quintilian, satire was a strict form of writing, but the term later expanded beyond its original meaning. Robert Elliott explains that once a word is used metaphorically, it often gains new meanings. The Latin word "satura" was broadened by borrowing from the Greek word "satyros" (meaning "satyr") and its related forms. This led to the English word "satire" coming from "satura," while words like "satirize" and "satiric" have Greek origins. By the 4th century AD, writers of satires were called "satyricus." For example, St. Jerome was once called a "satyricus scriptor in prosa" ("a satirist in prose"). Over time, the spelling of the word changed, such as "satura" becoming "satyra," and in England, it was later written as "satyre."
The word "satire" comes from "satura," and its origin was not connected to the Greek mythological figure of the satyr. In the 17th century, scholar Isaac Casaubon was the first to challenge the belief that "satire" derived from "satyr," correcting a long-held misunderstanding.
Humour
Satire has rules that require it to do more than simply make people laugh. Even if something is very funny, it is not true satire unless it also makes someone feel a little uncomfortable while laughing.
Laughter is not always needed for satire. Some forms of satire are not meant to be funny at all. However, not all humor about topics like politics, religion, or art is considered satire, even if it uses techniques like irony, parody, or exaggerated performances.
Even light-hearted satire often leaves a serious message. The Ig Nobel Prize organizers explain this idea as making people laugh first and then making them think deeply afterward.
Social and psychological functions
Satire and irony have been seen as powerful tools for understanding society, often called the oldest way to study human groups. They help reveal a group's shared thoughts and feelings, its values, and the structures of power in a society. Some writers believe satire is more effective than non-artistic fields like history or anthropology. For example, in ancient Greece, the philosopher Plato once recommended the plays of Aristophanes to a friend who wanted to learn about Athenian society.
Throughout history, satire has helped people criticize and mock leaders in politics, religion, and other powerful areas. It challenges public discussions and the shared beliefs of a society, acting as a way to balance power by questioning leaders and authorities. For instance, satire can push governments to explain, change, or create new policies. Satire's role is to point out problems and contradictions, but it does not need to fix them. Karl Kraus is an example of a satirist who challenged public discourse in history.
Because of its role, satire has often been allowed to mock important people and institutions in many societies. The urge to use satire, along with its traditions, helps reduce social tension. For example, ritual clowns express negative feelings in a way that helps a society return to balance and stability, which can be harmed by strict rules.
The way political satire is treated in a society shows how open or closed that society is, as well as how much freedom and rights people have. In totalitarian systems, any criticism, especially satire, is often banned. In the Soviet Union, for example, writers like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov faced pressure from the government for their work. While everyday life satire was allowed, political satire was limited to jokes and stories that mocked leaders like Leonid Brezhnev, who was known for his narrow-mindedness and love of awards. A well-known satirist in the USSR was Arkady Raikin.
Classifications
Satire is a type of writing that is hard to describe and group into categories. It has many different forms.
Satirical writing can often be divided into three main types: Horatian, Juvenalian, and Menippean.
Horatian satire is named after the Roman writer Horace, who lived from 65 to 8 BCE. This type of satire gently makes fun of problems in society using light-hearted and kind humor. Horace wrote poems called Satires to laugh at the popular ideas and beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece. He avoided being harsh or angry. Instead, he used humor and clever jokes to point out silly or foolish behaviors. Horatian satire focuses on making fun of human mistakes and foolishness, not serious harm. It uses wit, exaggeration, and self-deprecating humor. Its tone is friendly and understanding, which is common in today’s world. The goal of Horatian satire is to make people laugh and feel better, not to anger them. It reminds people to take life less seriously and makes them smile.
Juvenalian satire is named after the Roman writer Juvenal, who lived from the late first century to the early second century AD. This type of satire is more harsh and angry than Horatian satire. Juvenal disagreed with the ideas of public leaders and institutions in the Roman Empire. He used satire to strongly criticize them. He exaggerated and made fun of his targets to show them as terrible or useless. Juvenal’s satire focuses on making fun of society’s problems in a rough and mean way. It often uses irony, sarcasm, and strong criticism. Juvenalian satire is more serious and less focused on humor. It is often used in political satire that strongly criticizes society. A Juvenalian satirist wants to change society because they believe their targets are harmful or wrong. They use exaggeration to hurt the reputation or power of their opponents. Jonathan Swift, a famous writer, used Juvenalian techniques to criticize English society.
In theater history, there has always been a debate about whether comedy should focus on serious issues or just be fun. Max Eastman described satire as a range from very sharp (called "hot-end") to very mild (called "violet-end"). He used the word "kidding" for humor that is not serious. Nobel Prize-winning playwright Dario Fo explained the difference between satire and teasing, which he called sfottò. Teasing is not serious; it only makes fun of a person’s appearance or habits. It makes people feel sorry for the powerful person being teased. Satire, on the other hand, uses humor to challenge power and unfairness. It has a moral purpose and makes people angry at its targets. Fo said real satire causes strong reactions from powerful people, and the more they try to stop it, the more effective it is. Historically, powerful people have liked harmless jokes but have tried to stop real satire.
Teasing (sfottò) is an old form of comedy that does not challenge power. It includes gentle jokes, friendly mockery, and simple fun. Teasing focuses on a person’s looks, habits, or speech, but it never criticizes their actions, beliefs, or power. It makes powerful people seem more human and gain sympathy for them. For example, Hermann Göring, a powerful figure, used jokes about himself to appear more human.
Satire often focuses on topics like politics, religion, and sex. These subjects are important to society and often taboo. Politics is the most common topic in satire. Satire about religion criticizes religious beliefs, and satire about sex may overlap with other types of humor.
Scatology, or jokes about bodily functions, has been linked to satire since ancient times. It is connected to the grotesque, which is a type of humor that uses exaggerated or strange images. In satire, comparing people or institutions to waste or feces shows their uselessness or corruption. Some cultures use rituals involving eating filth or sin-eating to deal with death or guilt. Satire about death overlaps with dark humor and jokes about serious topics.
Satire can also be grouped by its focus: political satire, religious satire, and satire of manners. Political satire, also called topical satire, criticizes politics. Satire of manners, also called satire of everyday life, criticizes social behavior. Religious satire targets religious beliefs. Comedy of manners, which began in British theater in 1620, focuses on the lives of the wealthy without criticizing them.
Satire can also be described by its tone: wit, ridicule, irony, sarcasm, cynicism, and harsh criticism.
Reflexive humor is a type of humor where the person telling the joke makes fun of themselves or their group. The audience’s understanding of the context is important for the joke to work. Satire is not only in writing. In cultures without written language, it appears in rituals, folk stories, and trickster tales. It also appears in art, music, dance, cartoons, and graffiti. Examples include Dada art, Pop Art, music by Gilbert and Sullivan, and punk rock. In modern media, satire is common in television, movies, and online content.
Development
One of the earliest examples of satire, called The Satire of the Trades, comes from Egyptian writing around the start of the second millennium BC. This text seems to be written for students who are tired of studying. It argues that being a scribe is not only useful but also better than the lives of ordinary people. Scholars like Helck believe the text was meant to be taken seriously.
A piece called The Papyrus Anastasi I, from the late second millennium BC, includes a satirical letter. It first praises the person it is written to but then mocks their limited knowledge and achievements.
The Greeks did not have a word for "satire," though they used terms like cynicism and parody. Modern critics consider the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the most famous early satirists. His plays often criticized politics and society, especially targeting powerful figures like Cleon in The Knights. Aristophanes faced persecution for his work. His plays often included images of filth and disease. His style influenced the Greek dramatist Menander, who wrote Drunkenness, a play that criticized the politician Callimedon.
The oldest form of satire still used today is Menippean satire, created by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost, but examples from his followers mix serious and mocking ideas in dialogues and include parodies. Like Aristophanes’ plays, Menippean satire often used images of filth and disease.
In China, satire is called fengci (諷刺). It appears as early as the time of Confucius, mentioned in the Book of Odes (Shijing). It meant "to criticize through a poem." Before the Qin dynasty, schools of thought used short stories called yuyan (寓言), or "entrusted words," to explain ideas. These stories often had satirical content. The Daoist text Zhuangzi first defined yuyan. However, during the Qin and Han dynasties, yuyan declined because rulers like Qin Shi Huang and Han Wudi persecuted dissent and limited free speech.
The first Roman to discuss satire was Quintilian, who created the term to describe the writings of Gaius Lucilius. The most famous Roman satirists were Horace and Juvenal, who lived during the early Roman Empire. Other Roman satirists included Gaius Lucilius and Persius. Their satire included exaggerated, humorous writing with little actual mockery. Horace criticized Augustus using subtle, ironic language. In contrast, the 6th-century-BC poet Hipponax wrote satirical poems so harsh that some offended people committed suicide.
In the second century AD, Lucian wrote True History, a satirical book mocking unrealistic travel stories by writers like Ctesias, Iambulus, and Homer. He claimed he had no real knowledge but would tell lies anyway. He described wild, impossible stories, such as interplanetary travel and life inside a giant whale, to highlight the absurdity of other books like Indica and The Odyssey.
Medieval Arabic poetry included a satirical genre called hija. The writer Al-Jahiz introduced satire into Arabic prose in the 9th century. He used humor and witty observations to make serious topics more engaging. For example, he joked about human penis size by comparing it to a mule’s, saying, "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, the mule would belong to the noble Quraysh tribe." A similar joke appears in the Arabian Nights story "Ali with the Large Member."
In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poems by As-Salami and Abu Dulaf. As-Salami praised Abu Dulaf’s knowledge but mocked his abilities, and Abu Dulaf responded with satire. Another example was the poet Jarir, who called Farazdaq "a transgressor of the Sharia," and later poets used the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.
After Aristotle’s Poetics was translated into Arabic, the terms "comedy" and "satire" became similar in the medieval Islamic world. Islamic thinkers like Al-Farabi and Averroes linked comedy to satirical poetry like hija and saw it as "the art of criticism," not as cheerful stories. Later, in the 12th century, the term "comedy" took on new meanings in European literature.
In the 14th century, the Persian writer Ubayd Zakani introduced satire into Persian literature. His work included political and bawdy verses, often debated for their references to homosexual practices. His famous work, Masnavi Mush-O-Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), was a political satire. Other Persian writers, like Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi, also wrote notable satires between 1905 and 1911.
In the Early Middle Ages, satirical songs by wandering poets, collected in Carmina Burana, were popular. These songs were later used in a 20th-century musical by Carl Orff. Satirical poetry was common, but few examples survived. With the rise of vernacular literature in the 12th century, satire returned, especially in works by Chaucer. Moral satire, which mocked bad behavior in Christian terms, was more accepted than other forms. Examples include Livre des Manières by Étienne de Fougères and some of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
In the High Middle Ages, the story Reynard the Fox, written by Willem die Madoc maecte, was a popular satire of the class system. It used animals to represent different social classes, such as lions for nobles, who were shown as greedy but weak. The story remained popular through the early modern period, with a Dutch version called Van den vos Reynaerde.
Techniques
Literary satire often uses ideas and methods from older satirical works, including familiar themes, situations, attitudes, and ways of speaking. Exaggeration is a common technique used in satire to highlight problems or behaviors. Another technique is diminution, which involves making something seem smaller or less important to achieve a similar effect.
Legal status
Satire, because of its role in society and its nature, has often been allowed to criticize important people and organizations without facing legal consequences in many countries. In Germany, Japan, and Italy, satire is protected by their constitutions.
Satire is part of the area of art and artistic expression, which means it has more lenient legal rules compared to freedom of information related to journalism. In some countries, a specific "right to satire" is recognized, and its legal limits are broader than the "right to report" in journalism or the "right to criticize." Satire is protected not only by freedom of speech laws but also by laws that support cultural, scientific, and artistic creation.
In September 2017, The Juice Media received an email from the Australian National Symbols Officer asking them to stop using a satirical logo called the "Coat of Harms," which was based on the Australian Coat of Arms. This request came after complaints from members of the public. At the same time, a bill was introduced to the Australian Parliament in September 2017 to change the Criminal Code Act 1995. If passed, the new law could lead to prison sentences of 2 to 5 years for those who broke its rules.
By June 2018, the Criminal Code Amendment (Impersonating a Commonwealth Body) Bill 2017 was still being reviewed in the Australian Senate. The third reading of the bill took place on May 10, 2018.
Censorship and criticism
Satire often uses harsh, sharp, or painful language to criticize its target. Because satire mixes anger and humor, and because it raises questions about difficult or controversial topics, it can cause strong emotional reactions.
Satire is based on irony or sarcasm, which can make it hard for people to understand. One common mistake is confusing the person who creates satire with the character they portray.
People often misunderstand satire and react strongly. Some may say it lacks good taste or claim it is not funny. Others may believe the satirist agrees with the ideas or people being mocked. For example, when Jonathan Swift wrote A Modest Proposal, many people thought he was seriously suggesting eating children to solve poverty, not realizing it was satire. After the 9/11 attacks, some people in the United States thought satire was inappropriate, even though it was meant to comment on serious issues.
Some people criticize Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn for being racist, but they miss the fact that Twain used the book to satirize racism and other issues. A similar misunderstanding happened with the character Alf Garnett in the British TV show Till Death Us Do Part, who was meant to mock racism but was seen as a hero by those who shared his views.
The Australian show The Chaser's War on Everything faced criticism for a sketch that criticized people who avoid donating to charities. Many believed the show was attacking the Make a Wish Foundation or children with serious illnesses. The Prime Minister at the time, Kevin Rudd, said the show’s actions were unacceptable, and the show was suspended for two weeks.
The Romantic movement once believed satire was not important enough to study seriously. This belief still affects how some people view humor and satire today, even though they are important for understanding human behavior.
Satire often avoids censorship because it criticizes indirectly. However, powerful people who feel attacked may try to stop it. For example, the ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes was punished by a political leader named Cleon.
In 1599, church leaders in England banned verse satire, ordering some books to be burned. This rule, called the Bishops' Ban of 1599, also required approval from the Queen’s government before publishing histories or plays. The reasons for the ban are unclear, but it may have been linked to past conflicts involving satire.
In 2005, a Danish newspaper published cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad, leading to global protests and violence. Many countries and leaders defended satire as part of free speech. In 2006, the film Borat faced criticism, even though its creator, Sacha Baron Cohen, is Jewish. The film was a response to a dispute with the government of Kazakhstan.
In 2008, a South African cartoonist named Zapiro drew a controversial image of the president, Jacob Zuma, which led to the removal of his shows from television. In 2009, Samsung sued a journalist in South Korea for $1 million over a satirical article. In 2015, the UK Independence Party asked police to investigate the BBC for jokes about its leader, but the request was denied.
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Robert Creeley
Hart Crane
Sara Jane Crafts