Science fiction, often called sci-fi or SF, is a type of fiction that imagines future scientific or technological progress. Over time, common elements in science fiction have expanded. These include space exploration, alien life, time travel, and robots. Later, the genre also included ideas like parallel universes, societies with serious problems, and changes to living things. More recently, it has explored topics such as computers, changing humans through technology, and environmental issues. Science fiction often looks at how people might react to these imagined scientific advances.
The exact definition of science fiction has been debated by writers, critics, and readers for a long time. It includes many subgenres. For example, hard science fiction focuses on real science, while soft science fiction focuses on social issues. Other subgenres include space opera, which is about adventure in a universe where space travel is common; cyberpunk, which examines how technology affects society; and climate fiction, which deals with environmental problems.
Some early examples of science fiction date back to ancient times. Books written during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment were considered early science-fantasy stories. The modern science fiction genre began in the 19th and early 20th centuries, as writers used ideas about technology to create stories. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, written in 1818, is often seen as the first true science fiction novel. Jules Verne and H.G. Wells were important in developing the genre. In the 20th century, science fiction grew during the Golden Age of Science Fiction and expanded with stories about space adventures, dystopian worlds, and stories in popular magazines.
Science fiction has influenced not only books but also movies, TV shows, and culture overall. It can point out problems in today’s world, imagine different possibilities, and provide entertainment. It also helps people feel amazed or curious about the future.
Definitions
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, edited by John Clute and Peter Nicholls in 1993, includes a long and detailed discussion about the difficulty of defining the science fiction genre.
Isaac Asimov, an American writer and professor of biochemistry, wrote: "Science fiction can be defined as that branch of literature which deals with the reaction of human beings to changes in science and technology."
Science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein stated: "A handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."
Lester del Rey, an American science fiction author and editor, wrote: "Even the devoted aficionado or fan has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is," and no "full satisfactory definition" exists because "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction."
Another definition is provided in The Literature Book by the publisher DK: "scenarios that are at the time of writing technologically impossible, extrapolating from present-day science…or that deal with some form of speculative science-based conceit, such as a society (on Earth or another planet) that has developed in wholly different ways from our own."
There is a tendency among science fiction enthusiasts to decide for themselves what qualifies as science fiction. David Seed suggests that it may be more useful to describe science fiction as the intersection of other more concrete subgenres. Damon Knight, an American science fiction author, editor, and critic, summarized the difficulty by saying, "Science fiction is what we point to when we say it."
Forrest J Ackerman, an American magazine editor, science fiction writer, and literary agent, is credited with first using the term "sci-fi" (reminiscent of the then-trendy term "hi-fi") around 1954. The first known use in print was a description of Donovan's Brain by movie critic Jesse Zunser in January 1954. As science fiction entered popular culture, writers and fans began to associate the term "sci-fi" with low-quality pulp science fiction and low-budget, low-tech B movies. By the 1970s, critics such as Damon Knight and Terry Carr used "sci-fi" to distinguish low-quality work from serious science fiction.
Peter Nicholls, an Australian literary scholar and critic, wrote around 1993 that "SF" (or "sf") is "the preferred abbreviation within the community of sf writers and readers."
Robert Heinlein believed the term "science fiction" was not enough to describe certain types of works in the genre and suggested using the term "speculative fiction" instead for works that are more "serious" or "thoughtful."
Literature
Some scholars say that science fiction began in ancient times, when people could not always tell the difference between myths and real events. A book called A True Story, written in the 2nd century CE by a writer named Lucian, includes many ideas that are common in modern science fiction. These ideas include traveling to other planets, meeting creatures from other worlds, fighting in space, and creating life artificially. Some people believe this book is the first science fiction novel. Other early works, such as stories from The Arabian Nights, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, and Theologus Autodidactus, are also said to have science fiction elements.
During the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, several books were written that are now considered true science fiction. These include New Atlantis by Francis Bacon (1627), Somnium by Johannes Kepler (1634), Itinerarium extaticum by Athanasius Kircher (1656), Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon by Cyrano de Bergerac (1657), The Blazing World by Margaret Cavendish (1666), Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726), Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum by Ludvig Holberg (1741), and Micromégas by Voltaire (1752).
Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan believed that Somnium, written by Johannes Kepler in 1634, was the first science fiction story. It describes a journey to the Moon and how Earth appears from there. Kepler is sometimes called the "father of science fiction."
After the 17th century, when the novel became a popular form of writing, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) and The Last Man (1826) helped shape the science fiction novel. Brian Aldiss said that Frankenstein was the first science fiction novel. Edgar Allan Poe also wrote science fiction stories, such as The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall (1835), which is about a trip to the Moon.
Jules Verne was known for his detailed and scientifically accurate stories, especially in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas (1870). In 1887, a Spanish author named Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau wrote El anacronópete, which introduced the idea of a time machine. An early science fiction writer from France and Belgium was J.-H. Rosny aîné (1856–1940). His most famous work, Les Navigateurs de l'Infini (The Navigators of Infinity) (1925), was the first time the word "astronaut" was used.
Many critics believe H.G. Wells was one of the most important science fiction writers, sometimes called "the Shakespeare of science fiction." His books include The Time Machine (1895), The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds (1898). His stories imagined alien invasions, creating new life forms, invisibility, and time travel. In his non-fiction works, he predicted inventions like airplanes, tanks, nuclear weapons, satellite TV, space travel, and something like the World Wide Web.
Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote A Princess of Mars (1912), the first book in a series about a fictional planet called Barsoom. The stories take place on Mars and feature a hero named John Carter.
One of the first dystopian novels, We, was written by Yevgeny Zamyatin in 1924. It describes a world where people live in a strict, controlled society.
In 1926, Hugo Gernsback started the first American science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories. In the first issue, he said:
By "scientifiction," I mean stories like those written by Jules Verne, H.G. Wells, and Edgar Allan Poe. These stories mix science with exciting adventures and visions of the future. They are both interesting and educational. They teach us about science in a fun way. The stories we read today may become real tomorrow. Many important science fiction stories are still being written, and future generations will see them as groundbreaking.
In 1928, E.E. "Doc" Smith’s first novel, The Skylark of Space (co-written with Lee Hawkins Garby), appeared in Amazing Stories. It is often called the first great space opera. That same year, Philip Francis Nowlan’s story Armageddon 2419, which introduced the character Buck Rogers, was also published in Amazing Stories. This story later became a comic strip, the first serious science fiction comic.
Last and First Men: A Story of the Near and Far Future (1930) by Olaf Stapledon is a science fiction novel that describes the future of humanity over two billion years. It is known for its large scale and creative ideas.
In 1937, John W. Campbell became the editor of Astounding Science Fiction magazine. This event is sometimes seen as the start of the Golden Age of Science Fiction, a time when stories focused on scientific progress. The Golden Age is often said to have ended in 1946, though some include the late 1940s and 1950s.
In 1942, Isaac Asimov began writing the Foundation series, which tells the story of the rise and fall of galactic empires.
Film
One of the first science fiction films ever made was A Trip to the Moon from 1902. It was directed by a French filmmaker named Georges Méliès. This film inspired other filmmakers to use more creative and imaginative ideas. Méliès used new ways to edit scenes and create special effects, which became important parts of making movies.
In 1927, the film Metropolis was released. It was directed by Fritz Lang and was the first full-length science fiction movie. At the time, it was not very popular, but today it is considered one of the greatest films ever made.
In 1954, the film Godzilla was released. It was directed by Ishirō Honda and started a type of science fiction movie called the kaiju subgenre. This type of movie usually includes large creatures, such as monsters, attacking cities or fighting other monsters.
In 1968, the film 2001: A Space Odyssey was released. It was directed by Stanley Kubrick and based on stories by Arthur C. Clarke. This film improved the quality and scale of science fiction movies made before it and influenced many later films.
Also in 1968, the film Planet of the Apes was released. It was directed by Franklin J. Schaffner and based on a 1963 French novel by Pierre Boulle. The movie shows a world after a disaster where intelligent apes rule over humans. It was praised by both audiences and critics.
In 1977, George Lucas began the Star Wars series with the film Star Wars. This series, often called a space opera, became a global cultural phenomenon and is now the third-highest-grossing film series in history.
Since the 1980s, science fiction films, along with fantasy, horror, and superhero films, have become the most common types of big-budget movies made in Hollywood. Science fiction films often mix with other genres. Examples include film noir (Blade Runner, 1982), family (E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, 1982), war (Enemy Mine, 1985; Starship Troopers, 1997), comedy (Spaceballs, 1987; Galaxy Quest, 1999), animation (WALL-E, 2008; Big Hero 6, 2014), Western (Serenity, 2005), action (Edge of Tomorrow, 2014; The Matrix, 1999), adventure (Jupiter Ascending, 2015; Interstellar, 2014), mystery (Minority Report, 2002), thriller (Ex Machina, 2014), drama (Melancholia, 2011; Predestination, 2014), and romance (Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, 2004; Her, 2013).
Television
Science fiction and television have always been closely connected. Before television became common in the late 1940s and early 1950s, stories about television and similar technology often appeared in science fiction.
The first known science fiction television program was a 35-minute version of the play RUR, written by Czech playwright Karel Čapek. It was broadcast live from BBC studios at Alexandra Palace on February 11, 1938. The first popular science fiction program on American television was Captain Video and His Video Rangers, a children’s adventure show that aired from June 1949 to April 1955.
The original The Twilight Zone series, created and narrated by Rod Serling, ran from 1959 to 1964. Serling also wrote or co-wrote most of the episodes. The series included fantasy, suspense, horror, and science fiction, with each episode telling a complete story. Critics say it is one of the best TV shows in any genre.
The animated series The Jetsons, which was a comedy and only ran for one season (1962–1963), predicted many inventions now in use, such as flat-screen TVs, computer-like screens for newspapers, computer viruses, video chat, tanning beds, home treadmills, and more.
In 1963, the series Doctor Who premiered on BBC Television with a time-travel theme. The original series ran until 1989 and was revived in 2005. It has been popular worldwide and has greatly influenced later science fiction TV.
Other British science fiction dramas from the 1970s include UFO (1970–1971), The Tomorrow People (1973–1979), Space: 1999 (1975–1977), and Blake’s 7 (1978–1981). Notable programs from the 1960s include The Outer Limits (1963–1965), Lost in Space (1965–1968), and The Prisoner (1967–1968).
The original Star Trek series, created by Gene Roddenberry, premiered in 1966 on NBC Television and ran for three seasons. It mixed space opera and space western styles. At first, it was only slightly successful, but it gained popularity through syndication and fan support. It became a popular and influential franchise with many films, TV shows, books, and other works. Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994) led to six additional live-action Star Trek shows: Deep Space Nine (1993–1999), Voyager (1995–2001), Enterprise (2001–2005), Discovery (2017–2024), Picard (2020–2023), and Strange New Worlds (2022–present). Other Star Trek shows are being developed.
The miniseries V premiered in 1983 on NBC. It showed an attempt by reptilian aliens to conquer Earth. Red Dwarf, a comic science fiction series, aired on BBC Two from 1988 to 1999 and on Dave since 2009. The X-Files, which focused on UFOs and conspiracy theories, was created by Chris Carter and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company from 1993 to 2002, and again from 2016 to 2018.
Stargate, a film about ancient astronauts and interstellar teleportation, was released in 1994. The series Stargate SG-1 premiered in 1997 and ran for 10 seasons (1997–2007). Spin-off series included Stargate Infinity (2002–2003), Stargate Atlantis (2004–2009), and Stargate Universe (2009–2011).
Other 1990s series included Quantum Leap (1989–1993) and Babylon 5 (1994–1999). The Syfy channel, launched in 1992 as The Sci-Fi Channel, focuses on science fiction, supernatural horror, and fantasy.
The space-western series Firefly premiered in 2002 on Fox. It is set in the year 2517, when humans have reached a new star system, and follows the adventures of the renegade crew of Serenity, a "Firefly-class" spaceship. The series Orphan Black began a five-season run in 2013, focusing on a woman who takes on the identity of one of her genetically identical clones. In late 2015, Syfy premiered The Expanse, an American show about humanity’s colonization of the Solar System, to great critical acclaim. Later seasons were shown on Amazon Prime Video.
Social influence
Science fiction became more popular in the first half of the 20th century because people respected science and new technologies were being developed quickly. Science fiction stories often imagine future scientific and technological progress. Some stories, like those by Arthur C. Clarke and Star Trek, show how progress might improve life and society. Other stories, such as The Time Machine by H.G. Wells and Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, warn about possible dangers from such progress.
In 2001, the National Science Foundation studied how people who read science fiction might think about science differently than others. These people often support space exploration and efforts to find life beyond Earth. Carl Sagan, a scientist, said that many scientists were inspired to study space because of science fiction.
Science fiction has predicted real inventions, such as the atomic bomb, robots, and borazon. In the 2020 TV show Away, astronauts use a Mars rover called InSight to listen for a landing on Mars. In 2022, scientists actually used InSight for the same purpose.
Science fiction helps people think about how societies might interact with others in the past, present, and future. It also shows how people are different from each other. Brian Aldiss called science fiction "cultural wallpaper," meaning it is part of everyday culture.
Science fiction is used by writers to share ideas and by teachers in many subjects. George Edgar Slusser, a science fiction critic, said science fiction is a global literary form that has expanded into movies, games, and other media. He also said that combining science and humanities is important for the future.
Science fiction has sometimes been used to protest against unfair systems. George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four is a famous story about a bad future government. It is often used in protests against leaders seen as controlling. James Cameron’s movie Avatar criticized imperialism, such as the colonization of the Americas by Europeans. Science fiction in Latin America and Spain also discusses authoritarianism.
Themes like robots, artificial humans, clones, and computers have been important in science fiction since Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (or earlier). Some critics think these themes show writers’ concerns about loneliness in modern society.
Feminist science fiction explores how society defines gender roles, how reproduction affects gender, and how one gender might have more power than another. Some stories show worlds without gender differences or ones where gender inequalities are worse, showing the need for feminist ideas.
Climate fiction, or cli-fi, focuses on climate change and global warming. Courses on literature and the environment may include cli-fi in their lessons. These topics are also discussed in other media.
Libertarian science fiction focuses on ideas like individual freedom, private property, and limited government. Robert A. Heinlein, a popular author, wrote books like The Moon is a Harsh Mistress and Stranger in a Strange Land in this style.
Science fiction comedy often jokes about real-life problems and makes fun of serious science fiction traditions.
Science fiction is said to inspire a sense of wonder. David Hartwell, a science fiction editor, wrote that science fiction mixes the logical with the surprising, creating a feeling of awe.
Carl Sagan, a scientist, said science fiction helps people learn about the unknown. He wrote that reading science fiction can make people think about ideas while doing simple tasks, like walking in the snow.
In 1967, Isaac Asimov, a writer, noted that science fiction fans felt upset because real life now seemed too similar to old science fiction stories. They felt that the excitement of imagining the future had become ordinary.
Study
The study of science fiction involves analyzing, explaining, and discussing science fiction books, movies, TV shows, new media, fan communities, and fan fiction. Scholars in this field examine the genre to understand it better and how it connects to science, technology, politics, other types of stories, and culture overall.
Science fiction studies started around the beginning of the 20th century, but it became an official academic field later. This happened with the creation of journals like Extrapolation (1959), Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction (1972), and Science Fiction Studies (1973). In 1970, groups like the Science Fiction Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation were formed to study science fiction. Since the 1970s, the field has grown with more journals, groups, conferences, and university programs, such as those at the University of Liverpool.
Science fiction has traditionally been divided into hard and soft types, based on how realistic the science in the stories is. However, this division has been questioned more in recent years. Some authors, like Tade Thompson and Jeff VanderMeer, note that stories focused on physics, astronomy, math, and engineering are often called hard science fiction, while those focused on biology, sociology, and other social sciences are called soft science fiction.
Max Gladstone described hard science fiction as stories "where the math works," but he noted that this definition can make stories seem outdated as scientific ideas change. Michael Swanwick rejected the traditional definition, saying hard science fiction is about characters solving problems "in the right way—through determination, a bit of courage, and the understanding that the universe may not be on their side."
Ursula K. Le Guin criticized the hard-soft divide, explaining that hard science fiction writers often focus only on physics, astronomy, and chemistry, while ignoring biology, sociology, and anthropology. She emphasized that she draws heavily from social sciences to explore human experiences.
Some critics doubt the literary value of science fiction and other genre fiction, though some well-known authors have written works that others classify as science fiction. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818) is an example of scientific romance in the Gothic tradition. Kurt Vonnegut, a respected author, wrote stories with science fiction themes.
Other science fiction writers whose works are considered serious literature include Ray Bradbury (Fahrenheit 451, The Martian Chronicles), Arthur C. Clarke (Childhood's End), and Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger (writing as Cordwainer Smith). Doris Lessing, a Nobel Prize winner, wrote the Canopus in Argos: Archives series (1979–1983), which explores interactions between advanced and less advanced civilizations.
David Barnett noted that some books use science fiction themes but are not labeled as such by their authors or publishers. These include The Road by Cormac McCarthy, Cloud Atlas by David Mitchell, The Gone-Away World by Nick Harkaway, The Stone Gods by Jeanette Winterson, and Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood. Atwood called Oryx and Crake and The Testaments speculative fiction, arguing that science fiction is sometimes unfairly associated with "talking squids in outer space."
In The Western Canon, literary critic Harold Bloom included Brave New World, Stanisław Lem’s Solaris, Kurt Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle, and The Left Hand of Darkness as important works of Western literature. Lem, however, refused to accept the label of science fiction.
In her 1976 essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown," Ursula K. Le Guin was asked, "Can a science fiction writer write a novel?" She responded that all novels focus on characters and that great novelists use characters to share their ideas, distinguishing them from poets or historians.
Orson Scott Card, best known for Ender’s Game (1985), argued that science fiction can omit traditional literary techniques because the story itself contains the message and intellectual meaning.
In 1998, Jonathan Lethem wrote an essay titled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction," recalling how Thomas Pynchon’s Gravity’s Rainbow was nominated for the Nebula Award but lost to Arthur C. Clarke’s Rendezvous with Rama. Lethem suggested this moment marked the end of science fiction’s hope to join mainstream literature. That same year, physicist and author Gregory Benford wrote that science fiction may be the defining genre of the 20th century, though it remains outside the "Rome of the literary citadels."
Community
Science fiction has been written by authors from different cultures and places around the world. According to 2013 data from Tor Books, a science fiction publisher, 78% of submissions were from men and 22% from women. A debate about voting groups for the 2015 Hugo Awards showed a disagreement in the science fiction community between two ideas: a growing trend to recognize more diverse stories and authors, and a reaction from some authors and fans who preferred more traditional science fiction.
Some of the most important awards in science fiction include the Hugo Award for literature, given by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon and chosen by fans; the Nebula Award for literature, given by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America and chosen by authors; the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, given by a group of writers; and the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for short fiction, given by a jury. A well-known award for science fiction films and TV shows is the Saturn Award, given yearly by The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films.
Other awards include Canada's Prix Aurora Awards, regional awards like the Endeavour Award for works from the U.S. Pacific Northwest, and special interest awards such as the Chesley Award for art, given by the Association of Science Fiction & Fantasy Artists, or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines sometimes hold reader polls, such as the Locus Award.
Conventions, often called "cons" by fans (like Comic-con), are held in cities worldwide. These events serve members from local, regional, national, or international areas. General-interest conventions cover all science fiction topics, while others focus on specific interests, such as media fandom or filk music. Most science fiction conventions are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups, though many media-related events are run by commercial promoters.
Science fiction fandom began with letters in the Amazing Stories magazine. Fans started writing to each other and shared their ideas in informal publications called fanzines. Once connected, they wanted to meet in person and formed local clubs. In the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions brought fans from larger areas together.
The earliest organized online fandom was the SF Lovers Community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a regularly updated text archive. In the 1980s, Usenet groups expanded online fan communities. In the 1990s, the World Wide Web helped grow online fandom through websites about science fiction and related genres.
The first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago, Illinois. As of 2025, one of the best-known fanzines is Ansible, edited by David Langford, who has won many Hugo Awards. Other fanzines that have won Hugo Awards include File 770, Mimosa, and Plokta. Artists who worked on fanzines often became well-known in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew. The Hugo Awards include a category for Best Fan Artists.
Subgenres
Science fiction is a type of fictional writing. Within science fiction, there are smaller types called subgenres. These subgenres can be grouped in many different ways. A book called Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy by Gary K. Wolfe lists more than 30 different types of science fiction, not including science fantasy, which combines elements of science fiction and other genres.