A lament is a strong expression of sadness, often found in music, poetry, or songs. This sadness usually comes from feelings of regret or from grieving the loss of someone or something. People may also express laments through spoken words, sharing their sorrow about something they regret or someone they have lost. These expressions are often accompanied by loud crying, moaning, or wailing. Laments are among the earliest forms of written expression and can be found in many different cultures around the world.
History
Many of the oldest and most lasting poems in human history are laments. One example is the Lament for Sumer and Ur, which is at least 4,000 years old and comes from ancient Sumer, the first known city-based civilization. Laments appear in famous works like the Iliad and the Odyssey, and were also sung in ancient Greece using a musical instrument called the aulos. Laments are found in Beowulf, the Hindu Vedas, and ancient religious texts from the Near East. They also appear in Mesopotamian city laments, such as the Lament for Ur, and in the Tanakh (or Old Testament).
In many cultures, both ancient and modern, laments have often been performed by women. A scholar named Batya Weinbaum suggested that women’s spontaneous songs of sorrow helped create the oral traditions that led to works like the Iliad. The themes of laments, such as expressing pain or loss, appear in the Book of Job and in poems like Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Adonais or Matthew Arnold’s Thyrsis.
The Book of Lamentations is part of the Old Testament and is also called the Lamentations of Jeremiah. Another example is the Lamentation of Christ, which shows Jesus’ body being mourned after his death on the cross. Jesus himself expressed sorrow over the future destruction of Jerusalem before his crucifixion.
In the Book of Lamentations or in the Psalms, laments often describe times of great hardship. They may be seen as cries for help when a group or person is struggling. These laments usually follow a pattern: a prayer to God, a description of suffering, a request for help, a curse on enemies, a statement of innocence or guilt, a promise to God, and finally, a song of thanks. Examples of this structure can be found in Psalm 3 and Psalm 44.
If the Lament of Edward II was truly written by Edward II of England, it is the only known work he composed.
In baroque opera, a heroine’s lament is a common feature. These songs are usually performed by female singers and are accompanied by string instruments. They often use slow, sad melodies and are memorable even when separated from the rest of the opera. An early example is Ariadne’s “Lasciatemi morire” from Claudio Monteverdi’s Arianna. Later composers like Francesco Cavalli expanded this style, as seen in Ciro’s “Negatemi respiri”.
Other famous laments include Dido’s “When I am laid in earth” from Henry Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas, Handel’s “Lascia ch’io pianga” from Rinaldo, and “Caro mio ben” by Giordani. In operas, laments often mark emotional high points. For example, in Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro, the Countess’s lament “Dove sono” surprises the audience. In Rossini’s The Barber of Seville, Rosina’s sorrow is followed by an unexpected orchestral scene instead of a traditional lament. These laments remained important in romantic opera, such as the Marschallin’s monologue in Der Rosenkavalier.
In modern times, discussions about sadness and trauma have taken the place of the ritual laments that were common in older societies. This change focuses more on personal feelings than on traditions shared by a group.
Scottish laments
The purely instrumental lament is a common form in piobaireachd music for the Scottish bagpipes. "MacCrimmon's Lament" dates to the Jacobite uprising of 1745. The tune is believed to have been written by Donald Ban MacCrimmon, piper to the MacLeods of Dunvegan, who supported the Hanoverians. It is said that Donald Ban, who was killed at Moy in 1746, had a feeling that he would not return.
A well-known Gaelic lullaby is "Griogal Cridhe" ("Beloved Gregor"). It was composed in 1570 after the execution of Gregor MacGregor by the Campbells. The grief-stricken widow, Marion Campbell, describes what happened as she sings to her child.
"Cumhadh na Cloinne" ("Lament for the Children") is a pìobaireachd composed by Padruig Mór MacCrimmon in the early 1650s. It is generally believed to be based on the loss of seven of MacCrimmon's eight sons within a year to smallpox, possibly brought to Skye by a Spanish trading vessel. Poet and writer Angus Peter Campbell, quoting poet Sorley MacLean, has called it "one of the great artistic glories of all Europe." Author Bridget MacKenzie, in Piping Traditions of Argyll, suggests that it refers to the slaughter of the MacLeods fighting Cromwell's forces at the Battle of Worcester. It may have been inspired by both.
Other Scottish laments from outside of the piobaireachd tradition include "Lowlands Away," "MacPherson's Rant," and "Hector the Hero."
Lament in Ancient Greece
Ritual lament was connected to performance in Ancient Greece. At first, it was part of funerary rites, and people believed it was a musical and feminine way to express feelings and honor the dead. As lament became part of Greek theater and literature, men also took part in it, but the act of lamenting was still mostly linked to women.
During the Archaic and Homeric periods, ritual lament was performed mainly by women during the próthesis step of burial. This was a formal way to show emotion, and it included music. The lament involved singing, crying, tearing clothes, and hitting the chest, all of which created the sounds of mourning. Art from that time, such as pottery and funerary plaques, shows women in active poses while men are shown in more still positions. This shows how society viewed women as more emotional and men as more logical.
In the Archaic and Homeric ages, lament was divided into two parts: gôos and thrënos. Later, during the Classical period, these terms were often used interchangeably, especially in Athenian tragedies. Famous playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides included female characters who lamented, such as Cassandra in Agamemnon, Electra in Electra, and Hecuba in Trojan Women. Playwrights also created a new type of lament called kommos, which only appeared in tragedies. Male poets also used lament in their writing, sometimes addressing the gods or writing about close friends.
Ritual Lament in Athens During the Age of Solon’s Laws
Solon, an Athenian leader, made rules that limited how women could take part in funerary rites. His laws controlled how women dressed and acted in public during funerals. He also banned practices like cutting skin, wailing, and using set laments. These rules may have aimed to reduce the noise and extravagance of funerals. However, Plutarch, a later writer, criticized these laws as unfair to women. Modern scholars suggest that the loud and emotional nature of lament might have challenged the political values of Athens, where logic was highly valued.
Lament During the Festival of Adonia
The Festival of Adonia shows how lament was connected to women. This event, held only by women, honored Adonis, the lover of the goddess Aphrodite. Women gathered to mourn his death, climbing rooftops and walking through the streets in processions. Fragments of Sappho’s poetry describe women beating their chests and tearing their clothes, actions similar to those in burial rituals. Another poet, Bion, wrote a lament for Adonis in a different style, using hexameter and mentioning Aphrodite by her other name, Cytherea. These works show how lament evolved from oral traditions to written poetry.
The festival is also mentioned in the play Lysistrata by Aristophanes. In the play, men complain about the loud laments of women during the festival, which even drown out their voices in a meeting. Scholars today believe the festival allowed women to challenge traditional roles. Since women were usually expected to stay home, the Adonia gave them a rare chance to gather publicly, express themselves, and form their own community. This event may have helped women express their voices in a way that was accepted by society.
Types of Musical Lament
Musical form
A short, free musical form called lament appears during the Baroque and Romantic periods. It usually has changes in harmony with a simple melody and accompaniment. The bass line, known as the Lament bass, moves downward through a sequence of four notes, often forming a pattern that suggests a sad-sounding scale.