Gaius Petronius Arbiter ( / p ɪ ˈ t r oʊ n i ə s / ; Classical Latin: [ ˈɡaːiʊs pɛˈtroːniʊs arbɪtɛr ] ; around 27 to around 66 AD; sometimes called Titus Petronius Niger) was a Roman official during the time of Emperor Nero (ruled 54–68 AD). He is usually thought to have written the Satyricon, a humorous story believed to have been created during Nero’s rule.

He is a key character in Henryk Sienkiewicz’s historical novel Quo Vadis (1895). In the 1951 movie version of the book, Leo Genn plays him.

Life

A reference to Petronius by Sidonius Apollinaris places him, or his work Satyricon, in Massalia (ancient Marseille). He may have been born and educated there. Tacitus, Plutarch, and Pliny the Elder describe Petronius as the arbiter elegantiarum, or "judge of elegance," in the court of Emperor Nero. He served as a suffect consul in 62. Later, he became part of the senatorial class and lived a life focused on pleasure. His relationship with Nero was similar to that of a fashion advisor.

Tacitus writes in his work Annals (XVI.18):

Petronius spent his days sleeping and his nights working or enjoying himself. His lifestyle, though wasteful, made him famous. He was seen not as a common wastrel but as a skilled lover of luxury. His bold speech, considered honest, made him popular. However, during his time in government and as consul, he showed strength and ability. Later, he returned to his life of indulgence and became one of Nero’s close friends. He was seen as an expert on matters of taste.

Ancient sources do not provide more details about Petronius’s life or mention him as a writer. However, a medieval manuscript from around 1450 of the Satyricon credits "Titus Petronius" as the author. This is traditionally linked to Petronius Arbiter, as the novel seems to have been written or set during his lifetime. This connection remains uncertain and debated.

In the Satyricon, Petronius’s character development, especially of Trimalchio, goes beyond the typical writing style of ancient literature. During Petronius’s time, stories focused on plot, following classical rules. Characters were less important. Petronius, however, created detailed descriptions of speech, behavior, surroundings, and appearance.

Another feature of the Satyricon is its use of specific references. These mentions of people, events, and social conditions suggest the novel was written during Nero’s reign. The connections to figures like Seneca and Lucan support this idea. The work was likely aimed at an audience that included Nero’s courtiers and possibly Nero himself.

Petronius’s goal in writing was not to teach lessons or reform society but to entertain. His work, however, helps understand Roman customs and lifestyles because he included many details and references. The title Satyricon means it is a satire, specifically a Menippean satire, in which Petronius mocks nearly everything, using his own taste as a standard. It is believed that Trimalchio’s character reflects Nero, though Petronius never states his own views. The opinions of characters like Encolpius, who criticizes Trimalchio, are clear.

Petronius’s high status made him a target of envy. Tigellinus, the commander of Nero’s guard, grew jealous and accused him of treason. Petronius was arrested in 65 AD but chose to end his life instead of waiting for a trial. Tacitus describes his death in Annals (XVI):

He did not end his life quickly but made a cut in his veins, then tied them up. Later, he reopened them while talking to friends about light poetry and jokes. He gave gifts to some slaves and punished others. He dined and slept, making his death look natural. In his will, he did not praise Nero or Tigellinus but instead described Nero’s shameful behavior, including the names of his lovers and their actions. He sent this report to Nero and then broke his signet ring so it could not be used to harm others.

Pliny the Elder writes: "T. Petronius, a consul, broke his fluorspar wine-dipper before dying so that Nero’s table would not inherit it. It had cost 300,000 sesterces." Some believe T. Petronius and G. Petronius were the same person.