An allegory is a type of story or picture in which characters, places, or events are used to show a deeper meaning, such as a moral or political message. Writers and artists have used allegories for a long time to explain difficult or complex ideas in ways that are easy to understand or leave a strong impression on people.

Allegories often use symbols, such as characters that represent abstract ideas, or events that stand for larger themes. These symbols help convey the message the author wants to share, whether it is about right and wrong, important values, or social issues.

Etymology

The word "allegory" was first used in English in 1382. It comes from the Latin word "allegoria," which is the Latin version of the Greek word "allegoría," meaning "veiled language" or "figurative speech." This translates to "speaking about something else." The Greek word is made up of two parts: "allos," meaning "another" or "different," and "agoreuo," meaning "to speak in a public meeting." The word "agoreuo" comes from "agora," which means "assembly" or "public gathering."

Types

Northrop Frye described a "continuum of allegory," a range that includes what he called "naive allegory," seen in works like The Faerie Queene, and more personal allegories found in modern paradox literature. In this view, characters in "naive" allegory are not fully developed, as every part of their personalities and the events they experience represents a moral idea or abstract concept. The author first chooses the allegory, and then uses details to expand on it.

Classical allegory

The origins of allegory can be traced back at least to Homer, who used personifications such as Terror (Deimos) and Fear (Phobos) in his work, The Iliad (Il. 115 f.). However, the title of "first allegorist" is often given to the person who first interpreted Homer's work using allegory. This leads to two possible candidates: Theagenes of Rhegium, called the "first allegorist" by Porphyry (Porph. Quaest. Hom. 1.240.14–241.12 Schrad.), and Pherecydes of Syros. Both were active in the 6th century B.C.E., though Pherecydes is believed to have lived earlier and is often considered the first writer of prose. The debate is complex because it requires understanding the difference between two meanings of the Greek verb allēgoreīn, which can mean "to speak allegorically" or "to interpret allegorically."

When considering "interpreting allegorically," Theagenes appears to be the earliest example. He likely responded to early philosophical criticisms of Homer, such as those by Xenophanes, by offering symbolic interpretations of the gods in The Iliad. For example, he suggested that Hephaestus represented fire (see fr. A2 in Diels-Kranz). Some scholars, however, argue that Pherecydes' writings on the origins of the universe may have influenced Theagenes' allegorical approach, particularly because Pherecydes placed Time (Chronos) in his genealogy of the gods, a reinterpretation of the titan Kronos.

In classical literature, two well-known allegories are the Cave in Plato's The Republic (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in Menenius Agrippa's speech, as recorded by Livy (Ab Urbe Condita, ii. 32).

Plato's Allegory of the Cave, part of his work The Republic, describes people who have lived their entire lives chained in a cave, facing a blank wall. They see only shadows cast by objects passing in front of a fire and believe these shadows represent reality. When one person escapes the cave and sees the real world, he returns to tell the others, but they refuse to believe him. This story illustrates a philosopher who gains knowledge beyond common understanding and tries to share it, while others dismiss his insights, believing they already know enough.

In Late Antiquity, Martianus Capella created an allegory of the wedding between Mercury and Philologia, using this story to represent the seven liberal arts a young man needed to learn. Neoplatonic philosophy also developed allegorical interpretations of Homer and Plato. Scholars note that literal and allegorical readings of texts are connected. This method, which began with early readers of Homer and was expanded in Philo's commentaries on the Bible, became a natural approach for thinkers like Proclus, whose writings reflect the final stages of late antique philosophy and its relationship with rhetoric.

Biblical allegory

Other early symbolic stories can be found in the Hebrew Bible. For example, Psalm 80 uses a long metaphor about a vine growing and spreading, which represents Israel's growth and taking control of the Promised Land. In Ezekiel 16 and 17, a vine is captured by a powerful Eagle, symbolizing Israel's forced move to Babylon.

Using symbolic meanings to understand the Bible was a common practice among early Christians and is still used today. For instance, the recently discovered Fourth Commentary on the Gospels by Fortunatianus of Aquileia includes a note from its English translator: "Fortunatianus' way of interpreting the Bible focuses on using symbols and metaphors linked to important words to uncover hidden meanings in the text."

Medieval allegory

Allegory can make a story feel timeless while adding a spiritual meaning. During the Middle Ages, people believed allegory had a real truth behind its stories, even if the stories were not literal. For example, the Papal Bull Unam Sanctam (1302) used allegory to show the unity of Christendom with the pope as its leader. The text treated the metaphors in the story as facts, using logical language to argue: "There is one body and one head in the Church—not two heads, as if it were a monster… If others claim they are not under the care of Peter and his successors, they admit they are not part of Christ's followers." This shows how often allegory was used in religious writings during the Middle Ages, following the Bible's example.

In the late 15th century, the mysterious book Hypnerotomachia included detailed woodcut illustrations that reflected the influence of pageants and masques on how allegory was represented. These works showed how humanist ideas shaped the use of allegory at the time.

The rejection of medieval allegory, seen in works like those of Hugh of St. Victor and Edward Topsell’s Historie of Foure-footed Beastes (London, 1607, 1653), and the shift to studying nature through classification and mathematics by figures like naturalist John Ray and astronomer Galileo is considered a key moment in the start of early modern science.

Modern allegory

Allegories are stories that can be connected to bigger ideas, even if the author did not intend them to be. This process of interpreting a story as an allegory is called allegoresis. Some examples of allegory in popular culture may or may not have been planned by the creators. These include works by Bertolt Brecht, as well as some science fiction and fantasy stories, like The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis.

The story of an apple falling on Isaac Newton’s head is another well-known allegory. It explains the idea of gravity in a simple way by showing how Newton supposedly discovered it. This story also helped make the scientific idea of gravity famous by summarizing it in a short and easy-to-remember tale.

Poetry and fiction

Although looking for hidden meanings in a story can help find allegory, not every meaningful story from modern times is meant to be an allegory. Some stories are clearly not intended to be understood this way. In a 1964 article, Henry Littlefield suggested that L. Frank Baum’s The Wonderful Wizard of Oz can be seen as a fantasy story with talking animals and simple characters, created to discuss political issues of the time. However, in 1893, George MacDonald wrote that "A fairy tale is not an allegory."

Another well-known example is J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. Some people mistakenly believe this story is an allegory, but the author once said, "I dislike allegory in all forms. I prefer stories, whether true or made up, that allow readers to find their own meanings. Many people confuse this freedom with allegory, but one lets readers think, and the other forces the author’s ideas on them."

Tolkien specifically did not like the idea that the One Ring, which gives great power to those who possess it, was meant to represent nuclear weapons. He explained that if this had been his intention, the story would have ended with a competition to claim the Ring, not with its destruction. He also described an alternate ending for The Lord of the Rings that would have made the book a dark, dystopian tale. While these details do not mean Tolkien’s works cannot be interpreted as having hidden meanings, especially through modern views, they show that he did not write with allegory in mind. This highlights the idea that some people force hidden meanings into stories, even when the author did not intend them.

Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings: a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.

Some examples of allegory can be found in the following works:

Some detailed and well-known examples of allegory are found in the following works, listed in the order they were created: