A dialect is a type of language used by a specific group of people. It can include both common, official forms of language and less common, informal, or unofficial forms, such as those spoken in some developing countries or in areas that are not connected to others. Dialects of the same language are different mainly because of how they use sounds, word structure, sentence structure, and words.
Dialects that are not standard may be written in ways that are different from the official written form of the language. A dialect spoken aloud or a person's unique way of speaking can sometimes be shown in writing using special spelling choices.
Standard and nonstandard dialects
A standard dialect, also called a "standardized language," is supported by official groups. This support can include government recognition, being taught in schools as the "correct" form of a language, informal observation of how people use the language in daily life, published books like grammar guides, dictionaries, and textbooks that show how the language should be spoken and written, and a large amount of formal writing, such as stories, poems, and non-fiction, that uses the language. An example is the French language, which is supported by the Académie Française. A nonstandard dialect also has its own complete grammar and vocabulary but usually does not receive support from official groups.
The difference between a "standard" dialect and "nonstandard" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often not clear-cut and may depend on social, political, cultural, or historical reasons, or how widely used the dialect is. In a similar way, the terms "language" and "dialect" can sometimes overlap and are often debated. The way people classify them may depend on arbitrary or sociopolitical reasons, and the word "dialect" is sometimes used only to describe a non-standard form, especially in discussions that are not focused on language studies or in traditions outside English-speaking countries.
Dialect as linguistic variety of a language
The word "dialect" is often used to describe speech patterns that are common in a specific area, sometimes called a "regiolect." However, dialects can also be defined by other factors, such as social class (a "sociolect") or ethnicity (an "ethnolect").
According to this idea, any form of a language can be called a dialect, including standardized forms. In this case, the difference between a "standard language" (the most widely accepted form of a language) and "nonstandard" dialects (like everyday speech) is often based on social, political, cultural, or historical reasons. Sometimes, the terms "language" and "dialect" can overlap, and people may disagree about how to classify them. In some cases, "dialect" is used only for nonstandard speech, especially outside of specialized studies or in traditions other than English. Some experts, however, have used the term "dialect" to describe older or "purer" forms of a language, even though this may not always be accurate. For example, early English dialectologists did not consider the speech of Birmingham or Liverpool as real dialects because it developed more recently and was influenced by other groups, like Irish migrants.
There is no single rule for deciding whether two forms of speech are dialects of the same language or separate languages. Some methods exist, but they can lead to different results. The difference between dialects and languages depends on the perspective of the person making the decision. For example, some people debate whether Limón Creole English, spoken by descendants of Jamaicans in Costa Rica, is a type of English or a separate language. In some cases, like Scanian (spoken in southern Sweden), a dialect has even been given its own code for language identification.
One important factor in classifying speech is "linguistic distance," which measures how different two forms of a language are. If two forms are very similar, they are likely dialects of the same language. If they are very different, they may be considered separate languages. For example, Dutch and German are considered "siblings" in the West-Germanic language group because they are closely related. French and Spanish are also siblings in the Romance language group and are closer to each other than to languages in the West-Germanic group.
Another common rule is "mutual intelligibility," which means that speakers of two forms can understand each other. If two groups can understand each other, they are often considered dialects. If not, they may be classified as separate languages. However, this rule is not always clear, especially in cases where dialects form a "chain" of speech that changes gradually. For example, a person might understand the next dialect in the chain but not one farther away.
Some experts argue that mutual intelligibility can vary, and it may be hard to tell if people understand each other or are just familiar with the language. Recent studies suggest that mutual intelligibility can still be useful in classifying languages and dialects, even if mutual understanding is not always required. The Language Survey Reference Guide from SIL International, which creates language codes, defines a "dialect cluster" as a central form of speech plus other forms that speakers can understand at a certain level (usually 70% to 85%). If the threshold is high, the group is considered a language.
Another idea is "linguistic authority," which means that speakers of two forms might refer to the same standard or expert for information. For example, speakers of Westphalian and East Franconian German might both use a German dictionary or ask a German expert for help. This shows they depend on Standard German, which is considered autonomous (independent). In contrast, speakers of Low Saxon in the Netherlands might use a Dutch dictionary, showing they are part of Dutch. Similarly, Yiddish speakers might use a Yiddish dictionary instead of a German one, even though Yiddish and German are somewhat similar.
According to W. A. Stewart, a language is an autonomous form plus all forms that depend on it. This idea was also shared by other experts in 1960. Using this definition, Danish and Norwegian, which are very similar, are considered separate languages. Heinz Kloss described this as "language by development" rather than "language by separation."
In some cases, a group of related speech forms may have some mutual understanding but no dominant form. To describe this, the Handbook of African Languages introduced the term "dialect cluster," which is a classification level similar to a language. A similar situation with even less mutual understanding is called a "language cluster."
According to SIL International's Language Survey Reference Guide, a dialect cluster includes a central form of speech and other forms that speakers can understand at a certain level (usually 70% to 85%). It is not required that all forms understand each other. A group of central forms that covers a dialect chain can be chosen using data about mutual understanding.
In many societies, a dialect often used by the elite class may become the standard or "official" form of a language.
Colloquial meaning of dialect
The word "dialect" can have different meanings. In some places, like Italy, France, and the Philippines, it is often used to describe languages that are not the official language of the country. These languages are sometimes viewed as less important or less respected compared to the official language. This use of "dialect" does not mean the same as when it refers to languages that are variations of a dominant language. Instead, these "dialects" developed separately and may not be closely related to the official language.
However, these "dialects" might still have shared origins with the official language and may be somewhat understandable to speakers of the official language. In this case, the official language is not called a "dialect" because it holds a higher status in society, politics, and writing. The term "dialect" in this context often has a political meaning, referring to languages that are not widely supported, not written down, or considered less important. It is also sometimes used to describe languages spoken in areas where they are not officially recorded, though linguists prefer the term "vernacular language" for such cases.
Dialect and accent
John Lyons explains that many linguists group differences in accent together with differences in dialect. Generally, accent refers to how words are pronounced, while dialect includes differences in how words are formed and the words that are used.
Examples
There are three geographical areas where Arabic is spoken (Jastrow 2002). Zone I includes the Arabian Peninsula, except for areas where southern Arabian was spoken, and covers places where Arabic was spoken before Islam became widespread. Zone II includes regions where Arabic-speaking people moved after the spread of Islam. These areas are the Levant, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq, and parts of Iran. The Egyptian, Sudanese, and Levantine dialects (including the Syrian dialect) are well known and widely used. Zone III includes areas where Arabic is spoken outside the main Arabic-speaking regions.
Spoken Arabic dialects share the same writing system and use Modern Standard Arabic as their common language for writing.
When discussing the German language, the term "German dialects" refers only to traditional regional varieties. This helps distinguish them from the modern standard German used in education and media. German dialects show many differences. Some are not easy to understand if you speak another dialect. German dialects are often named after ancient Germanic tribes that they are believed to have come from.
The number of people who speak dialects varies depending on factors like location. In northern Germany, dialects are less common than in southern Germany. In cities, dialects are less common than in rural areas. In public settings, dialects are less common than in private or familiar situations.
In Switzerland and Liechtenstein, the situation is different. Swiss German dialects are the main language used in daily life, while standard German is only used in schools, some media, and when speaking with people who do not know Swiss German. Many Swiss German speakers see standard German as a foreign language.
Low German and Low Franconian dialects in Germany are often considered part of the German dialects. This reflects the current situation, where they are influenced by standard German. This is different from the Middle Ages, when Low German had more independence.
Frisian languages in Germany and the Netherlands are not included in the German dialects.
Italy is often used as an example of a country where the word "dialect" (dialetto) is used in a specific way. Italy has many languages, most of which are not understood by each other and have their own local versions. Twelve of these languages, such as Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan, and Sardinian, have been influenced by Italian to different degrees. Some are endangered, like Sardinian and southern Italian Greek, while others, like Germanic Tyrolean, are still promoted. These languages are officially recognized as minority languages due to their unique history. However, many regional languages in Italy are called "Italian dialects" by non-experts, even though they use vulgar Tuscan as their reference language since the Middle Ages. These languages developed from Vulgar Latin, just like Italian, long before Italian became widespread.
During the Risorgimento, Italian was mainly a written language, and only 2.5% of Italy’s population could speak it. Supporters of Italian nationalism, like Alessandro Manzoni, pushed for a unified national language to create a shared Italian identity. After Italy was unified in the 1860s, Italian became the official language, while other languages were seen as "dialects" and associated with lower education.
In the early 20th century, Italian soldiers from different regions were forced to communicate in Italian during World War I, helping spread the language. Later, mass media and public education increased the use of Italian, reducing the number of people who spoke other regional languages. However, regional variations of standard Italian developed, which are better called dialects according to the first definition of the term. These variations are influenced by local languages and accents.
The most widely spoken languages in Italy, which are not regional Italian, belong to the Italo-Dalmatian group, which includes Italian. This group includes languages like Modern Italian, which is based on the Florentine dialect of Tuscan. Tuscan became important in literature and poetry starting in the 12th century. It spread through the works of Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio, who were known as the "three crowns." Florentine gradually became the language of educated people and merchants, and its use grew during the Renaissance due to Tuscany’s economic and cultural influence.
In addition to the Italo-Dalmatian group, the second most common language family in Italy is the Gallo-Italic group, which includes languages like Piedmontese, Emilian-Romagnol, Ligurian, Lombard, and Venetian.
Other languages in Italy belong to different families, such as Gallo-Romance (French, Occitan, Franco-Provençal), Rhaeto-Romance (Friulian, Ladin), Ibero-Romance (Algherese in Sardinia), Germanic (Cimbrian, Southern Bavarian, Walser German, Mòcheno), Albanian (Arbëresh), Hellenic (Griko, Calabrian Greek), Slavic (Slavomolisano, Slovene), and Romance (Sardinian). Sardinian is considered a separate language family and is often divided into Centro-Southern and Centro-Northern dialects.
Although many Italian languages are not mutually intelligible, the degree of difficulty in understanding them often depends on how far apart the languages are geographically or how many barriers, like mountains or rivers, separate them. Some regional Italian languages are easier to understand than others.