Postmodernism includes many different artistic, cultural, and philosophical ideas. It began in the middle of the 20th century as a way to question modernism. Postmodernism focuses on how meaning can change, rejects the idea of one true answer for everything, and challenges big stories or ideas that explain the world. Although its meaning can vary depending on the subject, it often questions rules that are already in place, mixes different styles, and looks at how knowledge and reality are shaped by society.
The word "postmodernism" started to have its current meanings in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in literature and architecture. Unlike modernism, which was serious and focused on one way of doing things, postmodernism uses playful and mixed styles. It also uses irony and shows many different ideas at once. Some people argue that postmodernism focuses more on style and appearance than on important values like morality, politics, or beauty.
In the 1990s, "postmodernism" became a way to celebrate the variety of cultures and ideas. Supporters of postmodernism are connected to movements like feminism, multiculturalism, and postcolonialism. Building on ideas from poststructural theory, postmodernism rejects the idea that one single story explains history. This made people question whether the Enlightenment’s belief in progress and reason was correct. Some critics say postmodernism’s ideas lead to a belief that nothing is truly right or wrong, which can be confusing. Because of this, the term is sometimes used negatively in everyday language.
Postmodernism started at the same time as major changes like industrialization, globalization, and cultural changes. Early examples in art and literature later became ideas in philosophy and social studies, influenced by thinkers like Lyotard, Derrida, Foucault, Baudrillard, and Jameson. Today, postmodernism appears in many areas like art, architecture, literature, music, dance, theater, fashion, marketing, and education. It uses many different styles, mixes old and new ideas, and shows how things are created. Even though some people say postmodernism is no longer as popular, it still affects modern culture. Some movements now call themselves "post-postmodern" or "reconstructive," showing how postmodernism continues to influence the world.
Definitions
"Postmodernism" is a term that people disagree about, as it refers to a concept that is hard to define clearly. It describes many different types of cultural items and events in various ways. It can be thought of as a general mood or spirit of the times.
Postmodernists often work together to go beyond the limits of modernism, but "modernism" itself can mean different things to different critics in various art forms. Some people even disagree about this basic idea. For example, literary critic William Spanos believes postmodernism is not tied to a specific time period but instead relates to a certain kind of creative thinking. He includes older works, like Euripides' Orestes or Cervantes' Don Quixote, as examples of postmodernism.
Scholar Louis Menand compares postmodernism to a "Swiss Army knife" of critical ideas, meaning it is very flexible and can be used for many purposes. However, media theorist Dick Hebdige criticized the term for being too vague, pointing out that people have used it to describe unrelated things, such as the design of a room, a "scratch" video, fear of nuclear war, and the idea that meaning can break down. He argued that such a broad term is just a buzzword.
Despite these disagreements, scholar Hans Bertens explains that postmodernism often involves being skeptical of grand explanations and traditional methods. In art, literature, and architecture, this leads to mixing styles and genres, breaking down old distinctions like high art versus popular art. In science, it highlights how people's backgrounds influence their views, making complete objectivity difficult. In philosophy, education, history, and other areas, it encourages questioning established systems and values, promoting diversity and blending different fields. Though these ideas existed before, postmodernism made them more prominent, using a skeptical and often playful attitude to shape its defining characteristics.
Historical overview
Two major cultural movements, modernism and postmodernism, started because of big changes in Western society. Events like the Industrial Revolution, growing cities, less religious influence, new technologies, two world wars, and globalization caused major changes in how people lived and thought. Modernism began in the late 1800s and aimed to rethink old ideas and values in many areas of life. Postmodernism started in the middle of the 20th century and questioned the idea that there are universal truths. It also changed how modernism worked by focusing on the complex and sometimes confusing parts of life.
The word "postmodernism" first appeared in a book in 1870, but it became more widely used in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1870, the artist John Watkins Chapman used the term "postmodern" to describe a style of painting different from French Impressionism. The Oxford English Dictionary first recorded the word in 1916, describing a painter named Gus Mager as a "postmodern" artist.
In 1914, a priest and writer named J. M. Thompson used the term to talk about changes in religious beliefs. He said postmodernism aimed to challenge modernist ideas by applying them to religion and traditions. Another writer, Randolph Bourne, used the term to describe Japan in an essay. In 1926, a man named Bernard Iddings Bell wrote a book called Postmodernism and Other Essays, which was the first time the term was used to describe a time after modernism. His work criticized old ideas from the Enlightenment and traditional Christian beliefs.
In 1939, a historian named Arnold J. Toynbee used the word "postmodernity" to describe the time after World War I. In 1942, a literary critic named H. R. Hays described postmodernism as a new kind of writing. Around the same time, the term was also used to talk about a dislike for a style of architecture called the International Style.
Even though these early uses of the term showed some ideas that later became important, the discussions about postmodernism didn’t continue directly. People still disagree about when the modern discussion about postmodernism began. Some say it started in the 1950s, others in the 1960s, 1970s, or 1980s.
In the 1970s, a sociologist named Daniel Bell described postmodernism as a way of thinking that rejected traditional values. He said modernism had made ideas like hard work less important. Later, in the 1980s, writers like Jean Baudrillard and Fredric Jameson helped bring the term back into use in sociology.
Discussions about postmodernism in the second half of the 20th century often happened in areas where people talked a lot about modernism. Even then, people disagreed about whether postmodernism was a new idea, a stronger version of modernism, or both.
In the 1970s, literary critics were the main people talking about postmodernism. By the 1980s, architects took over the conversation. Some of these ideas came from French poststructuralist thought, but postmodernism became its own separate idea in philosophy.
In the 1950s, poets like Charles Olson and Robert Creeley helped define the term "postmodern" in a way that is still used today. Their ideas challenged modernist poetry and were linked to a different way of thinking about art.
In the 1960s, some people used the word "postmodern" in a negative way to describe young people who no longer supported socialist or communist ideas. A writer named Irving Howe criticized postmodern literature for not trying to change society.
In the 1970s, a writer named Ihab Hassan studied works that could no longer be called modern. He used the example of the Black Mountain poets to show how postmodernism was playful and different from the serious style of modernism.
In the 1980s, architects like Charles Jencks talked about how postmodernism encouraged many different styles of art and buildings. He believed this was better than the strict style of International Modernism.
During the 1970s, postmodern critics started using ideas from poststructuralist thinkers, especially Jacques Derrida. Derrida argued that the way people understand language and knowledge is not as solid as people thought. This helped postmodernism become known for being self-aware and questioning traditional ideas.
In the 1980s, critics began looking at the work of Michel Foucault. His ideas brought attention to how power affects society, and this connected postmodernism to discussions about feminism and multiculturalism. A writer named Craig Owens linked postmodernism to feminism, though some feminists disagreed with this idea.
Even though postmodernism used ideas from philosophy early on, the word "postmodernism" was not added to philosophy until 1979, when a writer named Jean-François Lyotard wrote a book called The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. This book helped start many debates about the term.
By the 1990s, postmodernism was often used to talk about ideas about postmodernity itself. It was no longer focused on a specific art form or subject.
In the arts
Postmodernism includes many different types of art and creative styles. In visual art, styles like pop art, conceptual art, feminist art, video art, minimalism, and neo-expressionism are considered postmodern. This term also applies to music, with artists like John Cage, Madonna, and punk rock bands. Postmodern ideas appear in literature, film, architecture, theater, fashion, dance, and other creative fields. For example, Andy Warhol’s pop art, such as his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans series from the 1960s, challenged traditional ideas about what makes art valuable and blurred the lines between fine art and commercial design.
Some people criticize postmodern art for not focusing on beauty, relying too much on language for meaning, being hard to understand, lacking clear structure, and often using dark or negative themes.
Scholars studying postmodernism and architecture often reference Charles Jencks, who wrote about the topic starting in the 1970s. His most famous book, The Language of Post-Modern Architecture (1977), discusses how postmodern architecture combines modern techniques with traditional elements to communicate with the public and other architects. Jencks called this approach "double coding."
In their book Revisiting Postmodernism, Terry Farrell and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought more joy and sensory experiences to culture, especially in architecture. For example, postmodern architect Robert Venturi responded to the modernist idea that "less is more" with the phrase "less is a bore."
The term "postmodern dance" is linked to the Judson Dance Theater in New York during the 1960s and 1970s. This group used everyday movements, like sitting or walking, instead of traditional dance techniques. They performed in ordinary spaces and avoided dramatic costumes or stories. Earlier work by Anna Halprin in the 1950s influenced Judson’s ideas. The Judson group included dancers, artists, and writers who focused on the creative process rather than the final performance. By the 1980s, postmodern dance began to include more political themes and mix different styles.
Postmodern films challenge traditional storytelling and character development. They often mix high and low culture, question ideas about gender, race, and time, and avoid following typical narratives. Key features include copying styles from other works (pastiche), making the audience aware that the film is fictional (self-reference), and telling stories out of order to show that time is not fixed. These films also mix highbrow and lowbrow elements.
The movie Blade Runner (1982) is often studied as an example of postmodernism. It mixes science fiction with film noir and includes references to different cultures and time periods. Some critics see it as a postmodern film, while others interpret it through a modernist lens.
In literature, the term "postmodernism" became popular in the 1970s with Ihab Hassan’s book The Dismemberment of Orpheus. Postmodern novels often question their own connection to reality, use complex language, and avoid clear endings. Scholars like Brian McHale describe postmodernism as a shift from focusing on knowledge to focusing on existence. Others note that postmodern literature uses techniques like mixing different ideas and creating confusion.
Postmodernism has influenced many areas of music. It often uses references, irony, and pastiche, which require listeners to understand cultural and historical connections.
In philosophy
In the 1970s, a group of French thinkers, often called "poststructuralists," developed ideas that challenged modern philosophy. These ideas were influenced by earlier thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger, who questioned traditional views about reality. Though they did not always use the term "postmodern," they became known as postmodern theorists. Some people see poststructuralism as a separate idea from postmodernism, while others think it is part of postmodernism. These thinkers had a big impact on discussions about postmodernism, but they did not define it themselves.
Poststructuralists, like structuralists, believe that people’s identities, values, and economic conditions are connected and form a whole, not separate parts. Structuralism studies how meaning is created through fixed relationships in a system similar to language. Poststructuralism agrees with this but argues that these systems are never truly fixed or centered. Instead, poststructuralists focus on how cultural structures change over time. They also say that meaning is created, not discovered, and they replace the idea of "representation" (where meaning comes from fixed objects) with the idea that language can create new meanings in many ways.
Politically, these thinkers started with ideas similar to Marxism but later became disappointed with Marxism and opposed the French Communist Party. The events after the short-lived communist revolution in France in 1968 were a key moment that changed their views.
Deconstruction is a method used in philosophy and literary analysis, created by Jacques Derrida. It looks at texts to find places where meaning is unclear or unstable, showing that texts may not have a single, clear meaning. Derrida argues that writing always reveals hidden parts of a text and challenges ideas that seem to support the text’s meaning. He does not reject ideas like "origin" or "truth" but questions the idea that these concepts are final or absolute. He says these ideas are "under erasure," meaning they are not fully present, and this makes deconstruction a way of looking at texts from different angles.
Derrida believes that Western philosophy depends on hierarchies and relationships between opposing ideas, like presence versus absence. It focuses on presence and purity while ignoring other ideas. He calls this the "metaphysics of presence," saying people do not have direct access to reality. This idea influenced many postmodern thinkers.
French philosopher Michel Foucault studied how power works through social institutions, not just through individuals. He believed people are both shaped by and involved in these systems. He used a method inspired by Nietzsche to study how power has changed over time.
Foucault’s political views and the consistency of his ideas are still debated. However, his work often looks at history and uses written texts, especially academic ones, to understand how ideas have shaped modern politics and institutions.
Jean Baudrillard, trained in sociology, studied how society creates signs and symbols instead of real objects. He called this system "hyperreality," where signs and images are completely separated from real things. He said postmodernity is a time when reality is so influenced by signs that it becomes hard to tell what is real. In this view, signs and images only refer to themselves, not to anything real.
Baudrillard’s ideas about postmodernity are described as "apocalyptic," and some scholars debate whether his later works are science fiction or serious theories. Others think he intentionally tried to provoke discussion.
A major debate about postmodernism is whether anything can make a theory or idea true. This question is central to the argument between Jürgen Habermas and Jean-François Lyotard. Lyotard was the first to use "postmodern" in a philosophical way in his 1979 book The Postmodern Condition. He defined postmodernism as a lack of belief in "metanarratives," which are large stories that explain the world, like those from Christianity, Hegel, or Marx.
Lyotard argued that without these big stories, people are left with smaller, group-specific stories that can’t be judged from a single perspective. This created a crisis of legitimacy, a theme from Habermas, whose ideas Lyotard disagreed with. Lyotard focused on how different ideas could be connected, especially in ethics and politics.
Habermas, a critic of postmodernism, argued in his 1985 work The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity that postmodern thinkers faced a contradiction. Their critiques of modernity relied on ideas that they claimed were outdated.
In other fields
Postmodernism can be better understood by looking at its effects in areas such as law, education, urban planning, religious studies, politics, and other fields. Its influence changes depending on the subject, showing how postmodern ideas have been used in real-life practices.
Reflexivity is important in postmodern anthropology. This means constantly being aware of how one's own views might affect how things are studied. Other important practices include listening to the people being studied, respecting cultural differences, questioning whether science can always provide clear answers, and avoiding grand stories that claim to explain all cultures.
Subjectivity is a key issue. Since ethnographies are shaped by the researcher’s perspective, there is a question about whether the researcher’s views should be seen as scientific. Clifford Geertz, an important figure in postmodern anthropology, said, "Anthropological writings are themselves interpretations, and second and third order ones to boot. (By definition, only a 'native' makes first order ones: it's his culture.)"
Postmodern feminism combines postmodern ideas with French feminism, which rejects the idea of a single, universal experience for all women. Its goal is to challenge unfair rules in society that cause gender inequality. It avoids ideas that claim all women are the same and instead focuses on the differences among women. Using the same rules for all women ignores personal experiences, and many social ideas about women come from male views.
Postmodern feminism tries to understand the causes of gender inequality and works to create fairness by questioning strict thinking, supporting many different viewpoints, analyzing texts, and valuing personal experiences. Not all feminists agree with this approach—some think it weakens feminist efforts, while others support it.
In response to problems with old legal ideas, postmodern legal scholars created new ways to study law. They focus on how race, gender, and economic status create unfairness in the legal system.
In 1992, the Los Angeles Times reported on a group of psychologists who believed the idea of a single, unified self is incorrect. They said people have many different sides that change depending on situations. This challenges the old view of psychology as the study of individuals, instead seeing people as shaped by culture and language.
In 2001, Kenneth Gergen, a leader in postmodern psychology, said traditional psychology focuses on the mind, an objective world, and language as a way to share truth. He noted that many fields criticize these ideas, leading to a new psychology that values shared conversations over one-sided views. He also mentioned concerns, such as the idea that a world built on social ideas cannot ignore real, observable facts, and the problem of making truth claims while denying truth itself. He said psychology’s future is uncertain.
In 2021, psychologist Jan Smedslund said psychology spent many years trying to copy natural sciences but failed to understand individual behavior. He said the focus on group data ignored what happens inside individuals. He argued this approach led psychology to a dead end.
In 2024, professor Edwin Gantt said psychology is still trying to decide whether it belongs in the humanities, like philosophy and literature, or in the STEM fields. He said psychology is a place where modernist and postmodernist ideas in academia are often debated.
Modernism aimed to design cities based on industrial production, using large-scale solutions, standard designs, and prefabricated materials. This approach failed to account for differences and led to uniform, unchanging cityscapes. Jane Jacobs’ 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities criticized modernist planning and helped change public opinion against it, especially against planners like Robert Moses.
Postmodern urban planning focuses on creating diversity, accepting change, and avoiding the idea of perfect solutions. It challenges modernist planning by questioning its origins without returning to them.
Postmodern theology uses ideas from postmodern theory and thinkers like Martin Heidegger to study Christian beliefs. It uses methods like poststructuralism and deconstruction to question fixed meanings, explore personal experiences, and find hidden ideas in religious texts. This movement started in the 1980s and 1990s.
Theologian Kevin J. Vanhoozer grouped postmodern theology into seven types: postliberal, postmetaphysical, deconstructive, reconstructive, feminist, Anglo-American postmodernity, and radical orthodoxy. He said this classification is not perfect but is based on two rules: each type is used by more than one theologian, and each believes it is responding to or moving past modern ideas.
In popular culture
Postmodernism in fashion challenged traditional ideas of beauty. In 1997, designer Rei Kawakubo created a collection with dresses that had uneven padding made of goose feathers, forming unusual bumps on the body. In 1985, Issey Miyake designed a hat with dreadlocks that gave people a short-term, multicultural fashion experience. Vivienne Westwood used many different styles and influences in her work. Her 1981 "Pirate" runway show combined elements of British history, 18th- and 19th-century clothing, African textiles, and music from different cultures.
Postmodern fashion also appeared in the 1960s and 1970s through subcultures like the hippies and punks. These groups created their own unique styles through music, clothing, and language. Critics say that when these styles became popular, they lost their original meaning because people only copied the surface features without adopting the full subculture lifestyle.
Postmodernism in graphic design was first discussed in the British magazine Design in the late 1960s. The magazine saw graphic design as a practical way to meet the needs of a changing world. Designers focused on making product packaging and advertising visually appealing without judging consumer choices. Editor Corin Hughes-Stanton said postmodernism is a creative response to changes in society and the economy, showing active involvement rather than avoiding practical concerns.
In marketing, postmodernism emphasizes unique customer experiences instead of using broad generalizations. Academic Stephen Brown wrote in 1993 that marketers and customers now know a lot about each other, making it hard to control the market with simple rules. He said postmodern marketing avoids strict organization and instead uses creativity, emotion, and teamwork to connect with customers.
Ongoing influence
Since the late 1990s, many people in popular culture and in schools have believed that postmodernism is no longer widely used. Some say that postmodernism is no longer relevant in today’s cultural creations.
A 2020 study looked at how postmodernism may be changing into a new idea called post-postmodernism. This idea focuses on how changes in society affect how people choose what to buy or enjoy. Researchers compared song lyrics from Madonna (a postmodern example), Taylor Swift (a post-postmodern example), and Lady Gaga (a transitional example). They studied five key features of postmodernism and compared them to similar features in post-postmodernism: anti-foundationalism to rewriting, dedifferentiation to redifferentiation, fragmentation to reengagement, reversal of production and consumption to rebalancing of production and consumption, and hyperreality to alternative reality. The study found that postmodernism is still active and creative, and claims that it has ended may be exaggerated. It also noted that Taylor Swift’s success shows a shift from breaking down ideas to rebuilding them, though her post-postmodern style seemed somewhat shallow or based on stories.
The relationship between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to challenges to postmodernism. These challenges inspired the terms "post-postmodernism" and "postpoststructuralism," first used in 2003. A small group of critics has proposed new theories to describe culture or society after postmodernism, including Raoul Eshelman’s performatism, Gilles Lipovetsky’s hypermodernity, Nicolas Bourriaud’s altermodern, and Alan Kirby’s digimodernism (formerly called pseudo-modernism). However, these new ideas have not yet gained wide acceptance.
In 2022, Steven Connor wrote that postmodernism has not disappeared but has instead become part of everyday culture through absorption. He explained that mixing different styles is now common in all areas of culture, so there is little that can be called distinctly postmodern. The strong contrast between high and low culture has faded into something mild and unexciting. Today, postmodernism is described as a universal, unchangeable, and stable condition, especially seen in the growth of digital technology. According to Connor, postmodernism in the 2020s has become part of daily life, shifting from irony, pluralism, and uncertainty to urgency, anger, and clear, strong beliefs.