Superhero fiction is a type of speculative fiction that tells stories about costumed crime-fighters called superheroes. These characters often have abilities beyond normal human limits and fight criminals with similar powers, known as supervillains. This genre is usually between hard fantasy and soft science fiction in terms of how realistic the science is, and it sometimes blends with science fantasy. It is often found in comic books, but it has also grown to include other forms of media like movies, TV shows, and books.
Common plot elements
A superhero is usually the main character in superhero stories. However, in some stories, like Marvels by Kurt Busiek and Alex Ross, superheroes are not the main characters. A superhero (sometimes written as "super-hero" or "super hero") is a common type of character who has "extraordinary or superhuman powers" and works to protect people. Since Superman, the first superhero, appeared in 1938, superhero stories—ranging from short adventures to long, ongoing stories—have been popular in American comic books and have also appeared in other forms of media. The word "superhero" has been used since at least 1917. A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine (also written as "super-heroine" or "super heroine"). In the United States, the term "SUPER HEROES" was a shared trademark owned by DC Comics and Marvel Comics until 2024.
Most definitions say that superheroes do not need to have real superhuman powers to be called superheroes. However, other terms like "costumed crime fighters" or "masked vigilantes" are sometimes used for characters like Batman and Green Arrow, who do not have powers but share other traits with superheroes. These characters were often called "mystery men" during the Golden Age of Comic Books to separate them from characters with powers. Superheroes usually use their powers to stop daily crimes and fight threats to humanity, such as supervillains.
Long-running superheroes like DC's Batman, Superman, and Wonder Woman, and Marvel's Spider-Man, Captain America, and Iron Man, have a group of enemies called a "rogues gallery." One of these enemies might be the superhero's main enemy. Superheroes also fight other threats, such as aliens, magical beings, natural disasters, political ideas like Nazism or communism, and powerful or evil creatures.
Some superhero stories show discrimination against superheroes through laws called "Registration Acts," which require people with powers to register with the government. For example, in the alternate universe of Watchmen, published in 1986, a law called the "Keene Act" was passed to stop superheroes from acting without government approval. A similar idea appeared in Marvel Comics in the 2000s with a "Superhero Registration Act" that required people with powers to register and be ready to help during emergencies.
In JLA: The Nail, a story about superheroes facing backlash, the treatment of superheroes is compared to real-life criticism of comic book superheroes in the 1950s.
In an essay, Ethan Faust wrote that the 2004 movie The Incredibles uses superheroes to explore how society treats people with disabilities. The movie first shows superheroes helping others in a way that might not be wanted, and later shows them hiding their differences, which can lead to discrimination.
A supervillain or supervillainess is a type of villain character found in comic books, movies, and science fiction. They are often used as opposites to superheroes. While superheroes have amazing powers, supervillains also have strong powers or abilities to challenge heroes. Even without real powers, supervillains often have very smart minds that let them plan complex schemes or create powerful tools.
Another common trait of supervillains is having a lot of resources to help them achieve their goals. Many supervillains share traits with real-world figures like dictators, criminals, scientists, hunters, warlords, and terrorists. They often want to take over the world or become leaders. Superheroes and supervillains often have similar powers, abilities, or backgrounds. The main difference is that heroes use their powers to help others, while villains use their powers for selfish or harmful purposes.
Both superheroes and supervillains often use secret identities when they are acting. Sometimes, their real names are known, but usually, they hide their identities to protect their loved ones and avoid being constantly asked for help. This can create drama, as superheroes must find ways to change their identities without being discovered. This idea also allows fantasy characters to appear in realistic stories without making the story feel too fantastical.
Supervillains also use secret identities to hide their crimes and avoid being caught by the police. This lets them act freely and cause more harm without being stopped.
In superhero stories, death is rarely permanent. Characters who die are often brought back to life through magic or changes to past events. Fans call this practice "comic book death."
One of the most permanent deaths in superhero stories happens in origin stories. For example, Batman's parents were killed by a criminal, and Spider-Man's uncle was killed by a robber Spider-Man failed to stop. These events are usually permanent in the main storylines, though they may appear as ghosts, visions, or in flashbacks to inspire the superhero.
Another common feature is when a superhero's loved one is killed by a supervillain to move the story forward. Comic book writer Gail Simone called this practice "Women in Refrigerators," named after a story where a superhero's girlfriend was killed and put in a refrigerator by a villain.
Many superhero stories take place in a shared universe, like the DC and Marvel universes, where thousands of stories are connected over many years.
Changes to stories are common, from small updates to major changes that restart the story completely.
It is also common for stories to include well-known characters and settings while being separate from the main stories of those characters.
Stories often feature characters from different superhero works. In comic books, big events are published where many characters team up. In the past, especially during the Bronze Age of Comics, Marvel and DC had special series where their main characters, like Spider-Man and Superman, met other characters in single stories, such as Marvel Team-Up and DC Comics Presents.
History
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Many ancient civilizations had stories about gods and goddesses with powerful abilities, as well as heroes like Hanuman, Gilgamesh, Odysseus, and David, and demigods such as Heracles and Perseus. Real-life people who inspired costumed superheroes can be found in the "masked vigilantes" of the American Old West, such as the San Diego Vigilantes and the Bald Knobbers, who wore masks while fighting outlaws. The character of Spring Heeled Jack, who first appeared as an urban legend in the early 19th century, was later reimagined as a costumed adventurer in the 1890s.
The hero's journey is a well-known story pattern in which the main character goes on a quest to gain both material rewards and personal growth. It is often seen as a metaphor for children learning to grow up and become more caring. Earlier examples of the superhero idea include folk heroes like Robin Hood, who wore special clothing, and King Arthur, who had a magical weapon. Stories in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as penny dreadfuls, dime novels, and radio programs, featured heroes with unique costumes, special abilities, and missions to help others. The 1903 play The Scarlet Pimpernel and its stories helped make the idea of a masked hero and a secret identity more popular. Later characters like the Green Hornet and the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh followed this trend.
Science-fiction heroes like L'Oiselle, John Carter of Mars, Buck Rogers, Flash Gordon, and Lensman had futuristic weapons and gadgets. Tarzan was known for his strength and ability to talk to animals. Robert E. Howard's Conan the Barbarian, Hugo Danner from the novel Gladiator, and Aarn Munro from The Mightiest Machine, who gained powers from Jupiter's gravity, were also heroes with special abilities who fought powerful enemies. The word "superhero" was used as early as 1917.
Pecos Bill, created by Tex O'Reilly in 1923, was another early example of a superhero. Raised by coyotes after being lost as a child, Bill grew up to be a larger-than-life cowboy who could control tornadoes, ride wild animals, and perform amazing feats.
The most direct ancestors of superheroes were crime fighters in pulp magazines and film serials.
Nyctalope (1911), created by the French writer Jean de La Hire, introduced Léo Saint-Clair, a character with superhuman night vision and an artificial heart, making him one of the first cyborgs in literature. This character was a response to the villain Fantômas (1911), created by Marcel Allain and Pierre Souvestre. In 1916, Judex appeared in a French silent film serial by Louis Feuillade. Judex was a masked hero with a secret identity and a strong moral mission. Around the same time, Ravengar appeared in The Shielding Shadow, a French-American serial inspired by Judex. Ravengar was also a mysterious figure who fought for justice, helping to shape the idea of the masked vigilante. These characters came before The Shadow (1930), who became a famous example of the superhero with hypnotic powers and a fearsome presence. The Shadow's style was similar to Judex, and his ability to become invisible was like Ravengar's.
Other early superhero characters include Zorro, introduced by Johnston M. McCulley in 1919 with The Curse of Capistrano, known for his "Z" symbol; the technologically advanced "Black Sapper" (1929); the winged hero Night Hawk (1930), published in The Nelson Lee Library by John James Brearley Garbutt; Thurston Kyle, a scientific detective and inventor who created flying wings; the "peak human" Doc Savage (1933); and The Spider (1933). Comic strip characters like Hugo Hercules (1902), Popeye (1929), Mandrake the Magician (1934), Magic Phantom (1935), the Phantom (1936), and Olga Mesmer (1937) were also early examples. Mandrake and the Phantom, created by Lee Falk, introduced important ideas for the superhero genre. Mandrake had amazing powers, which were first shown as real magic and later explained as hypnotism. The Phantom introduced two new ideas: a mask with completely white eyes and a tight-fitting costume.
Like Nick Carter, also published by Street & Smith, and Henry Stone from Philip Wylie's The Savage Gentleman (1932), Doc Savage was trained by his father to become both physically and mentally strong. While Nick and Doc chose to be heroes, Henry struggled with personal and deep questions instead of fighting crime. Philip Wylie, the author of Gladiator and The Savage Gentleman, also co-wrote When Worlds Collide (1933) with Edwin Balmer, a story about planets heading toward Earth that inspired Flash Gordon.
The first masked crime-fighter created for comic books was the detective "The Clock," created by George Brenner, who appeared in Funny Pages #6 (November 1936) by Centaur Publications. In August 1937, the word "superhero" was used in a letter column of the pulp magazine Thrilling Wonder Stories to describe the title character of the comic strip Zarnak by Max Plaisted. Historians believe that the first appearance of Superman, created by Jerome "Jerry" Siegel and designed by Joseph "Joe" Shuster in Action Comics #1 (June 1938), marked the beginning of the superhero in comic books.
Outside of American comics, Japan had examples of costumed superheroes. Ōgon Bat (1931) was shown in painted panels used by kamishibai storytellers and had features similar to Superman and Batman. An earlier example from Japan was Sarutobi Sasuke, a superhero ninja from Japanese folklore and children's books in the 1910s. By 1914, he had superhuman strength, could chant magical words, appear and disappear, jump to the top of tall trees, ride clouds, control elements like water, fire, and wind, and change into other people or animals.
In 1938, writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, who had previously worked in science fiction magazines, introduced Superman. Siegel created the main and supporting characters, while Shuster designed them and gave Superman his first version of the now-iconic uniform. Superman had many of the traits that define superheroes today: a secret identity, superhuman powers, and a colorful costume with a symbol and cape. His name is also the source of the term "superhero," although early comic book heroes were sometimes called "mystery men" or "masked heroes."
DC Comics, which was known as National and All-American at the time, received a strong response to Superman and later introduced Batman, Wonder Woman, The Green Lantern, The Flash, The Hawkman, Aquaman, and The Green Arrow. The first team of superheroes was DC's Justice Society of America, which included many of these characters. Although DC dominated the superhero market at the time, many companies created hundreds of superheroes. The Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner from Marvel Comics (then called Timely Comics and later rebranded as Atlas Comics), and Plastic Man and Phantom Lady from Quality Comics were also popular. Will Eisner's The Spirit, a comic strip, became a major artistic influence for future comic book creators. The most popular superhero of the era was Fawcett Comics' Captain Marvel, now known as Shazam! under DC's trademark.
In non-comics media
Superhero films began in the 1940s as Saturday movie serials for children. The first superhero movie based on a comic book was The Adventures of Captain Marvel in 1941. These serials later stopped being popular, and superhero films did not return until 1978, when Superman became a big success both in terms of reviews and money. More Superman movies followed in the 1980s. In 1989, Batman was also very successful, and more Batman movies were made in the 1990s. However, later movies in both series were not as good, either in quality or money earned, which slowed the development of superhero films for a time.
In the 21st century, movies like Blade (1998), X-Men (2000), Unbreakable (2000), and Spider-Man (2002) helped restart the trend. These films led to more sequels and the creation of many superhero movie series. Some, like Batman Begins (2005), which started over the Batman series again, were successful. Others, like Catwoman (2004), were not. Later, superhero films became a major part of mainstream movies. Movies like The Dark Knight (2008), The Avengers (2012), Iron Man 3 (2013), and Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) earned a lot of money and were praised by critics. In 2016, Deadpool (2016) was very successful, even though it was based on a less-known comic character. It made over $100 million in February, a time when few movies do well. In 2018, Black Panther (2018) made $235 million in the same month and became the first superhero movie to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Avengers: Endgame (2019) became the highest-grossing movie of all time. In 2017, Sign Gene featured superheroes who use sign language.
From the 1950s to the 1970s, many live-action superhero TV shows were made. These included Adventures of Superman (starring George Reeves) and the 1960s Batman series (starring Adam West and Burt Ward). In the 1970s, the genre became more serious with shows like The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman. This led to direct adaptations of comic book heroes, such as Wonder Woman (1970s, starring Lynda Carter). The Incredible Hulk (late 1970s to early 1980s) had a more serious tone. Superboy (1988–1992) and Power Rangers (1990s, based on Japanese Super Sentai) were also popular. Other shows included Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman and Smallville (2001), which retold Superman’s origin as a teen drama. In 2006, Heroes told the story of ordinary people gaining powers. The British show Misfits featured young offenders with powers who fight villains. A similar idea was tried in the U.S. with Misfits of Science (1980s), which did not last long. In the 2010s, Arrow (based on Green Arrow) started the Arrowverse. Marvel also created Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and series on Netflix, later moving to Disney+. DC shows include Shazam!, The Flash (1990), and Gotham. Arrowverse shows include The Flash (2014), Supergirl, and Legends of Tomorrow. Marvel series include The Amazing Spider-Man and Daredevil. Japanese tokusatsu shows include Ultraman and Kamen Rider. Other shows include Buffy the Vampire Slayer, The Green Hornet, and The Boys.
In the 1940s, Fleischer / Famous Studios made animated Superman cartoons, the first superhero cartoons. Since the 1960s, superhero cartoons have been common on children’s TV, especially in the U.S. However, in the early 1970s, rules about violence in children’s shows led to milder content, as seen in Super Friends. Japan’s anime industry created its own superhero style, such as Science Ninja Team Gatchaman.
In the 1980s, Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends combined Spider-Man, Iceman, and Firestar. In the 1990s, Batman: The Animated Series was critically praised and led to the DC Animated Universe. Marvel followed with X-Men and Spider-Man: The Animated Series.
Comics inspired superhero stories in other formats. The 2004 movie The Incredibles used computer animation to tell a superhero story. Original superhero stories not based on comics include Disney’s Gargoyles and Ben 10.
From the 1940s, radio shows like Superman (starring Bud Collyer) featured superheroes. Other radio programs included The Green Hornet, Doc Savage, and The Lone Ranger.
Superheroes have also appeared in books. The 1942 novel The Adventures of Superman was the first superhero novel. In the 1970s, Elliot S! Maggin wrote Last Son of Krypton (1978) and Miracle Monday, which matched the Superman movie. Other books included stories about The Phantom and Marvel characters like Batman and Spider-Man.
In the 1990s and 2000s, Marvel and DC released novels based on story arcs like The Death of Superman and Planet Hulk.
Original superhero stories not tied to comic books have been written in novels, short stories, and poetry
Outside the United States
Many countries have created successful superhero stories that follow similar rules as American ones. Examples include Cybersix from Argentina, Captain Canuck from Canada, and heroes from AK Comics in Egypt. Some wore scarves instead of capes, and many wore helmets instead of masks.
In Japan, superheroes appeared in the 1930s through kamishibai, a type of street theater using painted panels and storytellers. Ōgon Bat, who debuted in 1931, introduced ideas later seen in American heroes like Superman and Batman. The iconic manga series Astro Boy (1952–1968), created by Osamu Tezuka, is considered the first superhero in Japanese manga and anime. Astro Boy is often compared to Superman because of its influence and popularity.
Popular Japanese tokusatsu shows include Moonlight Mask, Ultraman, and Kamen Rider. Anime series like Dragon Ball and One-Punch Man are also well-known. Japanese manga that target female readers include "magical girl" stories, such as Sailor Moon and Cardcaptor Sakura.
In 1947, Filipino writer Mars Ravelo created Darna, a superheroine who transforms using a magical pebble. She became a cultural icon in the Philippines.
After American heroes became popular in the UK, British superheroes appeared in comics like Lion, Valiant, and 2000 AD. Marvelman (known as Miracleman in the US) was a popular British hero. Later, writers like Alan Moore and Neil Gaiman revived Marvelman in more serious stories. Judge Dredd is another well-known British comics character.
In France, comics are called bande dessinée and are seen as an art form. Éditions Lug started publishing Marvel comics in the late 1960s and later created their own heroes, some similar to American ones.
In the late 1980s, Raj Comics introduced superheroes in India, becoming a major publisher. Heroes like Nagraj and Super Commando Dhruva are part of their universe. Indian superheroes also appear in movies and TV shows, such as Shaktimaan and Mr. India.
In 1954, Brazilian filmmaker Rubem Biáfora created Capitão 7 (Captain 7), a superhero inspired by Superman and Flash Gordon, in a TV series and later comics.
In the Middle East, Kuwait-based Teshkeel Comics published The 99, an original superhero series, from 2006 to 2013 in multiple languages.
Cat Claw is a superheroine created by Serbian artists. Biały Orzeł (White Eagle), a Polish superhero, was created by Adam and Maciej Kmiołek. Earlier attempts to introduce superheroes in Poland included stories like The Man With White Eyes and Tajfun (Typhoon).
Malaysia has superheroes like Keluang Man, similar to Batman, and Cicak-Man, who appeared in successful films.
In Australia, the magazine This Mutant Life: Superhero Fiction published superhero stories, though it stopped accepting poetry in 2011.