Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie was born on June 19, 1947. He is an Indian-born British and American novelist. His writing often blends magical realism with stories based on history, focusing on the connections and differences between Eastern and Western cultures, especially those in the Indian subcontinent. His second novel, Midnight's Children (1981), won the Booker Prize in 1981. It was later named "the best novel of all winners" during the 25th and 40th anniversaries of the prize.

After publishing his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses (1988), Rushdie faced several assassination attempts and death threats. Some people believed the book showed disrespect toward the Prophet Muhammad. A religious decree called a fatwa, issued by Iran’s supreme leader, Ruhollah Khomeini, called for Rushdie’s death. The book was banned in 20 countries. Extremists linked to the book carried out violent acts, leading to discussions about censorship and violence driven by religion. In 2022, Rushdie survived a stabbing at the Chautauqua Institution, which caused the loss of his right eye and injuries to his liver and hands. Two men who helped him were honored with the Carnegie Medal for heroism in 2025.

Rushdie studied history at King’s College, University of Cambridge, and graduated in 1968. In 1983, he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. In 1999, he was awarded the Commandeur de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by France. He was knighted in 2007 for his contributions to literature. In 2008, The Times listed him as the 13th greatest British writer since 1945. Since 2000, he has lived in the United States. In 2015, he became the Distinguished Writer in Residence at New York University’s Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute. He previously taught at Emory University and was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In 2012, he published Joseph Anton: A Memoir, describing his life after the events surrounding The Satanic Verses. In April 2023, Time magazine named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world.

Rushdie has been married five times. From 2004 to 2007, he was married to Padma Lakshmi, an Indian-American television presenter and model.

Early life and education

Salman Rushdie was born on June 19, 1947, into a Kashmiri Muslim family in Bombay, which was then part of British India, known as the British Raj. Bombay is now called Mumbai and is located in the Indian state of Maharashtra. His father, Anis Ahmed Rushdie, was a lawyer who later became a businessman. His mother, Negin Bhatt, was a teacher. Rushdie’s father was removed from the Indian Civil Services (ICS) after it was discovered that his birth certificate had been altered to make him appear younger. Rushdie has three sisters. In his memoir, Joseph Anton, he wrote that his father chose the name "Rushdie" to honor Ibn Rushd, a historical figure. Rushdie recalled that his first experience with storytelling came when he saw The Wizard of Oz, which inspired him to become a writer. He also mentioned that many children in India during his time were fascinated by the works of P. G. Wodehouse and Agatha Christie, and he read many books by both authors. Rushdie’s ancestral home, Anees Villa, was built by his grandfather in Solan, Himachal Pradesh.

Rushdie remembered that Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass deeply influenced him. He could still recite poems like "Jabberwocky" and "The Walrus and the Carpenter" from memory. He also enjoyed the Swallows and Amazons series by Arthur Ransome, which showed children exploring the Lake District with freedom. At age 16, he read The Lord of the Rings and memorized the inscription on the Ruling Ring: "One ring to rule them all…" He also read many science fiction books, including works by Ray Bradbury, Arthur C. Clarke, Kurt Vonnegut, and less well-known authors like Clifford D. Simak and L. Sprague de Camp. Rushdie described how his family, following Indian traditions, kissed holy books if they were dropped. However, he said his family kissed many things, including dictionaries, atlases, and even Superman comics.

While in India, Rushdie attended the Cathedral and John Connon School in South Bombay. In 1961, he moved to England and studied at Rugby School in Rugby, Warwickshire. Later, he enrolled at the University of Cambridge, where he studied history at King’s College and graduated in 1968 with a Bachelor of Arts degree.

Career

Salman Rushdie began his career as an advertising writer for Ogilvy & Mather, where he created slogans like "irresistibubble" for Aero and "Naughty but Nice" for cream cakes. He also worked for Ayer Barker until 1982, writing the line "That'll do nicely" for American Express. Rushdie collaborated with musician Ronnie Bond to write lyrics for an advertising song called "The Best Dreams" for Burnley Building Society. The song was recorded at Good Earth Studios in London and sung by George Chandler. While working at Ogilvy, Rushdie wrote his first novel, Midnight's Children, before becoming a full-time writer. He was a close friend of author Angela Carter, whom he called "the first great writer I ever met."

Rushdie’s books are often described as postmodern, especially within the tradition of magic realism. His work also shows early signs of a shift in literature beyond postmodernism. Today’s world is filled with entertainment like reality TV and talk shows, which can make people feel passive or uninterested. Some scholars, like Jeffrey T. Nealon, say this trend is part of a new era called metamodernism, where people are taught to watch rather than act. Rushdie’s stories mix fantasy and realism to challenge readers and encourage them to think critically.

Rushdie’s first book, Grimus (1975), was not widely noticed. His next novel, Midnight’s Children (1981), made him famous. It follows a boy named Saleem Sinai, born at the moment India gained independence, who has special powers and a connection to other children born at the same time. Rushdie said he did not write his characters as autobiographical, even though some experiences in the book were inspired by his life. He also credited his influences as Indian oral storytelling traditions, as well as authors like Jane Austen and Charles Dickens.

Midnight’s Children won the Booker Prize in 1981 and later special awards in 1993 and 2008. His next book, Shame (1983), explored political tensions in Pakistan and was based on real-life figures. It won France’s Best Foreign Book award and was a finalist for the Booker Prize. Both Midnight’s Children and Shame are examples of postcolonial literature, using magic realism and themes related to identity.

In 1987, Rushdie wrote a nonfiction book called The Jaguar Smile, which focused on his experiences in Nicaragua. He became interested in the country after meeting the wife of a former dictator and after his son Zafar was born during the Nicaraguan revolution.

Rushdie’s most controversial book, The Satanic Verses (1988), won the Whitbread Award. He later wrote Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990), a children’s book that explores the power of storytelling. This book was written during a time when Rushdie faced a fatwa, a religious decree calling for his death.

In 1990, Rushdie reviewed Thomas Pynchon’s Vineland for The New York Times. He joked about Pynchon’s reclusive nature, saying, “I can dig it, I can relate to that.” Rushdie met Pynchon and found him to be “Pynchonesque,” but they did not stay in contact.

Rushdie has written many short stories, collected in East, West (1994). His novel The Moor’s Last Sigh (1995) won the Whitbread Award. The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999) is based on the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, with original song lyrics that inspired a U2 song. His novel Shalimar the Clown (2005) was praised by critics as a return to form.

In 2002, Rushdie wrote a nonfiction book called Step Across This Line, where he discussed his admiration for authors like Italo Calvino and Thomas Pynchon. He has cited Jorge Luis Borges, Mikhail Bulgakov, Lewis Carroll, and Günter Grass as early influences. When asked about his favorite novelist, Rushdie said, “There are days when it’s Kafka, others when it’s Dickens, but probably Joyce on more days than anyone else.”

In 2008, Rushdie published The Enchantress of Florence, a complex novel set in the past. It tells the story of a European man who discovers he is related to the Mughal emperor Akbar. The book was praised for blending history with fiction. In 2010, he released Luka and the Fire of Life, a sequel to Haroun and the Sea of Stories. In 2012, Rushdie published his memoir, Joseph Anton: A Memoir, and became one of the first authors to use Booktrack, a platform that pairs ebooks with soundtracks.

In 2015, Rushdie published Two Years… (the text ends here).

The Satanic Versesand thefatwa

The book The Satanic Verses, published by Viking Penguin Publishing in September 1988, caused controversy in the Islamic world because some people believed it showed Prophet Muhammad in an unrespectful way. The title refers to a disputed Muslim tradition mentioned in the book. This tradition says that Prophet Muhammad (called Mahound in the book) added verses (Ayah) to the Quran that honored three pagan goddesses worshipped in Mecca. Later, Muhammad is said to have removed these verses, claiming the devil had tricked him into saying them to please the people of Mecca. However, the book suggests these verses were actually spoken by the Archangel Gabriel. Because of the controversy, the book was banned in many countries with large Muslim populations, including India, Iran, Bangladesh, Sudan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Thailand, Tanzania, Indonesia, Singapore, Venezuela, and Pakistan. In total, 20 countries banned the book.

In response to protests, Rushdie wrote an article in The Observer on January 22, 1989, calling Muhammad "one of the great geniuses of world history." He noted that Islamic teachings view Muhammad as a human being, not perfect. He explained that the novel is not against religion but explores themes like migration and its effects.

On February 14, 1989—Valentine’s Day and the day of his friend Bruce Chatwin’s funeral—Ayatollah Khomeini, the leader of Iran at the time, issued a fatwa (a religious decree) calling for Rushdie’s execution. The fatwa claimed the book was "blasphemous against Islam." A part of the book describes an Imam in exile who incites rebellion without caring for people’s safety. Khomeini’s son later said his father never read the book. A reward was offered for Rushdie’s death, and he lived under police protection for years. On March 7, 1989, the United Kingdom and Iran ended their diplomatic relationship over the controversy.

In 1989, The New York Times published a statement titled "Words For Salman Rushdie," featuring messages from 28 writers from 21 countries. They supported Rushdie’s right to free expression, noting many had faced censorship or imprisonment for their work. Writers like Czesław Miłosz and Ralph Ellison praised Rushdie’s courage and the importance of defending free speech.

Christopher Hitchens described the fatwa as a conflict between values he hated—such as censorship and violence—and those he loved, like literature and free expression. Rushdie later said Hitchens became a close friend because of his support, and both shared similar views on the importance of defending free speech against intolerance.

In 1993, 100 Muslim writers and thinkers, including Adonis and Edward Said, expressed support for Rushdie in a collection titled For Rushdie. They criticized the fatwa as unjust and defended the right to question ideas and create art. Naguib Mahfouz wrote that the punishment for Rushdie’s ideas would not stop the book or the ideas it presented.

When asked about the fatwa on BBC Radio 4, Rushdie said, "Frankly, I wish I had written a more critical book," and "I’m very sad that it should have happened." He denied the book was a blasphemy against Islam, saying he doubted Khomeini or others in Iran had read it. Rushdie later said he was proud of his statement and believed Islam, as a religion, could benefit from criticism.

The book’s publication and the fatwa led to violence worldwide, including bookstores being firebombed and public rallies burning copies of the book. People involved in translating or publishing the book were attacked, injured, or killed. Despite the danger, Rushdie appeared publicly at London’s Wembley Stadium in 1993 during a concert by U2. In 2010, U2’s bassist Adam Clayton recalled that Salman Rushdie attended the concert, surprising the band, and became a regular visitor afterward.

Awards, honours, and recognition

Salman Rushdie has received many awards for his writing. These include the European Union's Aristeion Prize for Literature, the Premio Grinzane Cavour in Italy, and the Writer of the Year Award in Germany, along with other top honors in literature.

Some of his awards and honors are:

• Austrian State Prize for European Literature (1993)
• Booker Prize (1981)
• Doctor Honoris Causa (Dr.h.c.) from the University of Liège, Belgium (1999)
• Golden PEN Award
• Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award (2014)
• Honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters (L.H.D.) from Indiana University (2018)
• Honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (Litt.D.) from Emory University (2015)
• James Joyce Award from University College Dublin (2008)
• Outstanding Lifetime Achievement in Cultural Humanism from Harvard University (2007)
• PEN Pinter Prize (UK)
• St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates
• Swiss Freethinkers Award (2019)
• Peace Prize of the German Publishers and Booksellers Association (2023)
• Champion of Writers Award from Authors Guild Foundation (2025)
• 2025 Ambassador Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award, one of the Dayton Literary Peace Prizes

In 2007, Rushdie was knighted for his work in literature during the Queen's Birthday Honours. He said, "I am thrilled and humbled to receive this great honour, and am very grateful that my work has been recognised in this way." Many Muslim-majority countries protested the knighthood. Parliament members in some of these countries criticized the decision, and Iran and Pakistan sent their British representatives to formally protest. Pakistan's Religious Affairs Minister, Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq, made controversial statements that were later rejected by former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. Some people publicly called for Rushdie's death. A few non-Muslims also said Rushdie did not deserve the knighthood, claiming other writers were more worthy.

Al-Qaeda, a terrorist group, criticized the knighthood. Its leader at the time, Ayman al-Zawahiri, said in an audio recording that the UK's award for Rushdie was "an insult to Islam" and that the group planned "a very precise response."

When asked if the knighthood was an insult to Muslims, Christopher Hitchens said: "Midnight's Children did not just win the Booker Prize, and Salman Rushdie later won the Booker of Bookers. Midnight's Children also won the main literary award in Iran. When the fatwa was issued against him by an old leader who ruled with religious laws and led his country into poverty, many Muslim and Arab writers supported Rushdie and wrote in a book for him. If you say that Muslims are being offended and group them all together, you are giving power to the most extreme, violent, and intolerant people who have not even read Rushdie's book. That is an insult to Islam."

In 2022, Rushdie was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) for his work in literature.

Religious and political beliefs

Salman Rushdie was born into a Muslim family that valued freedom of thought, but he does not believe in any religion. In a 2006 interview with PBS, Rushdie described himself as a "hardline atheist."

In 1989, after a religious decree called a fatwa was issued against him, Rushdie said he was no longer practicing Islam but was still influenced by Muslim culture. He also stated he studied Islam and believed in living as a secular person, meaning he did not believe in gods or supernatural beings from any religion.

In December 1990, Rushdie released a statement saying he still considered himself Muslim and regretted parts of his earlier comments about Islam and the Prophet Muhammad. He later said this moment was one of his lowest points because he felt the statement was not written by him.

Rushdie supports the use of higher criticism, a method of studying religious texts that began in the late 1800s. In 2005, he wrote in The Washington Post and The Times that Islam needs to change to fit modern times.

Rushdie criticizes the idea that all cultures or religions are equally valid. In a 2006 interview, he said he believes in using humor to challenge religious ideas. He opposed the 2015 attack on the Charlie Hebdo magazine, calling it a result of "religious totalitarianism" that harms Islam. He also defended the right to criticize religions through comedy.

Rushdie believes that reading and writing are basic human rights. He said that while people should respect traditions like family or nation, these should not prevent people from acting in ways that protect human dignity. In his 1983 novel Shame, he showed how women in Pakistan suffer from unfair social rules. He also supported feminism in a 2015 interview.

In 2006, Rushdie supported comments by Jack Straw, a British politician, who criticized the wearing of the niqab, a face veil. He said his three sisters would never wear such a veil and agreed with Straw’s views on women’s rights.

Rushdie supported the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia and the 2001 US-led war in Afghanistan. However, he opposed the 2003 war in Iraq, saying the US acting alone was wrong. A writer named Terry Eagleton once criticized Rushdie for supporting US military actions but later apologized for misunderstanding him.

Rushdie supported Barack Obama’s 2008 US presidential campaign and criticized the Republican Party. He took part in the Occupy Movement and supported gun control, blaming the 2012 Colorado cinema shooting on the US right to own guns. He became an American citizen in 2016 and voted for Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election.

Rushdie warned about the rise of leaders who spread fear and distrust in many countries. He said some people in the US no longer value free speech and democracy, which he called a political issue, not just a religious one.

In 2006, Rushdie signed a statement called Together Facing the New Totalitarianism, published in Charlie Hebdo, warning about the dangers of religious extremism. He also criticized Amnesty International for suspending a human rights worker named Gita Sahgal.

In July 2020, Rushdie signed a letter called Harper’s Letter, which argued that free speech and open debate are being limited. In October 2023, he expressed sadness about violence in the Israel-Palestine conflict and called for an end to fighting.

In May 2024, Rushdie said that if a Palestinian state were created, it might become like the Taliban and depend on Iran. He criticized some people for supporting groups he called "fascist terrorists."

Rushdie has criticized Pakistan’s former leader Imran Khan for making personal attacks against him. He has also said he prefers India over Pakistan because of its diversity and freedom. He criticized India’s ruling party, the Bharatiya Janata Party, and its leader, Narendra Modi. In 2019, he called the removal of special rights for Kashmir a serious human rights violation.

Personal life

In 1976, Rushdie married Clarissa Luard, who worked for the Arts Council of England as a literature officer. They have a son together. In the mid-1980s, Rushdie ended his marriage to Clarissa and began a relationship with Robyn Davidson, an Australian writer. They met through their friend Bruce Chatwin, who was also a writer. Rushdie and Davidson did not marry, and they separated before Rushdie’s divorce from Clarissa was finalized in 1987. The next year, Rushdie married Marianne Wiggins, an American writer.

In 1991, Rushdie purchased a home at 9 The Bishops Avenue in the London Borough of Barnet. He and his family lived there until 2000, when he moved to the United States. Rushdie and Wiggins divorced in 1993. In 1997, Rushdie married Elizabeth West, a British editor and writer. They have a son together. The couple separated after experiencing a miscarriage.

In 1999, Rushdie had surgery to treat ptosis, a medical condition that made it hard for him to open his eyes. He said, "If I hadn’t had the operation, in a few years I wouldn’t have been able to open my eyes at all."

After moving to the United States, Rushdie lived near Union Square, a neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City. In 2004, Rushdie married Padma Lakshmi, an Indian-American television presenter and model. They divorced the same year. They first met in 1999, when Rushdie was 51 and Lakshmi was 28. Lakshmi requested a divorce in 2007, and the couple officially filed for divorce in July. She said Rushdie was insecure and spoiled, and that he demanded constant praise and frequent attention. She also claimed he was unkind to her during her health struggles. In 2021, Rushdie married Rachel Eliza Griffiths, an American poet.

Rushdie supports the English football team Tottenham Hotspur. He has held a Person of Indian Origin Card, which gives certain rights to people of Indian descent who are not citizens.

Rushdie’s niece is Mishka Rushdie Momen, a pianist.

Works

• Grimus (1975)
• Midnight's Children (1981)
• Shame (1983)
• The Satanic Verses (1988)
• The Moor's Last Sigh (1995)
• The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999)
• Fury (2001)
• Shalimar the Clown (2005)
• The Enchantress of Florence (2008)
• Two Years Eight Months and Twenty-Eight Nights (2015)
• The Golden House (2017)
• Quichotte (2019)
• Victory City (2023)

• East, West (1994)
• Mirrorwork: 50 Years of Indian Writing 1947–1997 (1997, co-edited by Elizabeth West)
• The Best American Short Stories (2008, guest editor)
• The Eleventh Hour: A Quintet of Stories (2025)

• Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990)
• Luka and the Fire of Life (2010)

• In Good Faith, Granta Books (1990)
• Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism, 1981–1991 (1992)
• The Wizard of Oz: BFI Film Classics, British Film Institute (1992)
• Mohandas Gandhi, Time (13 April 1998)
• Imagine There Is No Heaven (extract from Letters to the Six Billionth World Citizen, published by Uitgeverij Podium, Amsterdam)
• Step Across This Line: Collected Nonfiction 1992–2002 (2002)
• The East Is Blue (2004)
• "A fine pickle," The Guardian (28 February 2009)
• In the South, Booktrack (7 February 2012)
• Languages of Truth: Essays 2003–2020 (2021)

• The Jaguar Smile: A Nicaraguan Journey (1987)
• Joseph Anton: A Memoir (2012)
• Knife: Meditations After an Attempted Murder (2024)

Relevant literature

• Szpila, Grzegorz. "Proverbial Meanings in Salman Rushdie's Novels." Journal of Literary Semantics, 37.2 (2008): pages 97–127.
• Szpila, Grzegorz. "Proverbial Allusions in Salman Rushdie's Novels." Proverbium, 25 (2008): pages 379–398.
• Szpila, Grzegorz. Idioms in Salman Rushdie's Novels: A Phrase and Style Analysis. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2012. 293 pages.