Science fiction, often called sci-fi or SF, is a type of storytelling that pictures future scientific or technological developments. Over time, common themes in science fiction have grown to include space travel, alien life, time travel, and robots. Later themes added parallel worlds, bad societies, and changes to living things. Recently, topics like computers, ideas about changing humans through technology, and environmental problems have also appeared. Science fiction often shows how people might react to these imagined scientific changes.
People have debated what exactly defines science fiction for a long time. It includes many types, such as hard science fiction, which focuses on real science, and soft science fiction, which looks at human behavior and societies. Other types include space opera, which tells exciting stories in a universe where space travel is common; cyberpunk, which examines how technology affects society; and climate fiction, which deals with environmental issues.
Some early examples of science fiction can be found in ancient stories. Books from the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment era are sometimes seen as early science-fantasy stories. The modern science fiction genre began mainly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when writers used ideas about technology as inspiration. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, written in 1818, is often called the first true science fiction novel. Jules Verne and H. G. Wells were important in developing the genre. In the 20th century, science fiction grew during the Golden Age of Science Fiction and expanded with stories about space adventures, bad societies, and magazines with exciting tales.
Science fiction has influenced not only books but also movies, TV shows, and culture overall. It can show problems in today’s world, imagine different possibilities, and entertain while making people feel amazed.
Definitions
The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, edited by John Clute and Peter Nicholls in 1993, includes a long and detailed discussion about the challenge of defining the science fiction genre.
American writer and biochemistry professor Isaac Asimov wrote, "Science fiction can be defined as a type of writing that explores how people respond to changes in science and technology."
Science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein stated, "A simple definition of most science fiction might be: realistic thinking about possible future events, based on a strong understanding of the real world, past and present, and on a clear knowledge of the scientific method."
American science fiction author and editor Lester del Rey wrote, "Even people who love science fiction often struggle to explain what it is," and he noted that no "complete and satisfying definition" exists because "science fiction has no clear boundaries."
Another definition appears in The Literature Book by DK: "Stories that are currently impossible with today’s technology, but imagine what could happen if science advances, or that explore imaginative ideas based on science, such as a society on Earth or another planet that has evolved in very different ways from ours."
Many science fiction fans often decide for themselves what qualifies as science fiction. David Seed suggests it may be more helpful to describe science fiction as the overlap of other more specific categories. American science fiction author, editor, and critic Damon Knight summarized the confusion, saying, "Science fiction is what we point to when we say it."
American magazine editor, science fiction writer, and literary agent Forrest J. Ackerman is credited with first using the term "sci-fi" (similar to the popular term "hi-fi" at the time) around 1954. The first known printed use of the term was in a description of the book Donovan’s Brain by movie critic Jesse Zunser in January 1954. As science fiction became more popular, writers and fans began to link the term "sci-fi" with low-quality science fiction stories and low-budget, simple science fiction movies. By the 1970s, critics like Damon Knight and Terry Carr used "sci-fi" to separate less serious work from more thoughtful science fiction.
Australian literary scholar and critic Peter Nicholls wrote around 1993 that "SF" (or "sf") is the preferred abbreviation used by science fiction writers and readers.
Robert Heinlein believed the term "science fiction" was not enough to describe all types of works in this genre. He suggested using the term "speculative fiction" instead for stories that are more "serious" or "thoughtful."
Literature
Some scholars believe science fiction began in ancient times, when the difference between myths and real events was not clear. A book called A True Story, written by Lucian in the 2nd century CE, includes ideas found in modern science fiction, such as visiting other planets, meeting aliens, space battles, and creating life. Some people say this is the first science fiction novel. Stories from The Arabian Nights, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, and Theologus Autodidactus are also said to have science fiction elements.
Books from the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment are seen as true science fiction works. Examples include New Atlantis by Francis Bacon (1627), Somnium by Johannes Kepler (1634), The Blazing World by Margaret Cavendish (1666), Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726), and Micromégas by Voltaire (1752).
Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan said Somnium was the first science fiction story. It describes a trip to the Moon and how Earth appears from there. Kepler is sometimes called the "father of science fiction."
After the novel became a popular form in the 17th century, Frankenstein (1818) and The Last Man (1826) by Mary Shelley helped shape science fiction. Some say Frankenstein was the first science fiction novel. Edgar Allan Poe wrote stories like The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall (1835), which is about a Moon journey.
Jules Verne was known for his detailed and scientific stories, especially in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas (1870). In 1887, a book called El anacronópete by Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau introduced the idea of a time machine. A French/Belgian writer named J.-H. Rosny aîné (1856–1940) used the word "astronaut" for the first time in his 1925 novel Les Navigateurs de l'Infini.
Many critics say H.G. Wells is one of the most important science fiction writers, or even "the Shakespeare of science fiction." His books include The Time Machine (1895), The Invisible Man (1897), and The War of the Worlds (1898). His stories explored alien invasions, invisibility, and time travel. In his non-fiction works, he predicted airplanes, tanks, nuclear weapons, space travel, and something like the World Wide Web.
Edgar Rice Burroughs' A Princess of Mars (1912) started a series of stories set on Mars. One of the first dystopian novels, We (1924), by Yevgeny Zamyatin, describes a world ruled by a strict, unified government.
In 1926, Hugo Gernsback published the first American science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories. He said:
"By 'scientifiction,' I mean stories like those by Jules Verne, H.G. Wells, and Edgar Allan Poe—romances that mix science with imagination. These stories are not only fun to read, but they also teach us. They show us what might be possible in the future."
In 1928, The Skylark of Space by E.E. "Doc" Smith and Armageddon 2419 by Philip Francis Nowlan appeared in Amazing Stories. These stories helped create the space opera genre. A comic strip based on Armageddon 2419 became the first serious science fiction comic.
In 1930, Olaf Stapledon wrote Last and First Men, a science fiction novel that imagines humanity's future over two billion years.
In 1937, John W. Campbell became the editor of Astounding Science Fiction magazine. This event is often seen as the start of the "Golden Age of Science Fiction," a time when stories focused on scientific progress. This period is usually said to end in 1946, though some include the late 1940s and 1950s.
In 1942, Isaac Asimov began the Foundation series, which explores the rise and fall of galactic empires and introduces the idea of psychohistory. The series later won a Hugo Award for "Best All-Time Series."
Theodore Sturgeon's More Than Human (1953) explored future human evolution. In 1957, Ivan Yefremov's Andromeda: A Space-Age Tale imagined a future communist society among stars. It is considered one of the most important Soviet science fiction novels.
In 1959, Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers introduced military science fiction and the idea of powered armor. The German series Perry Rhodan (started in 1961) became one of the most popular science fiction book series.
In the 1960s and 1970s, "New Wave" science fiction focused on creative writing and complex ideas.
In 1961, Stanisław Lem's Solaris explored human limits and imagined technologies like nanotechnology and artificial intelligence. In 1965, Frank Herbert's Dune created a detailed future society. In 1967, Anne McCaffrey began the Dragonriders of Pern series, which won a Hugo or Nebula Award for a female author. In 1968, Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? inspired the Blade Runner movies. Ursula K. Le Guin's The Left Hand of Darkness (1969) imagined a world without fixed gender and influenced social and feminist science fiction.
In 1979, Science Fiction World magazine began publication.
Film
One of the first science fiction films ever made was A Trip to the Moon from 1902. This film was directed by a French filmmaker named Georges Méliès. It inspired future filmmakers by showing new ways to use creativity and imagination. Méliès used special effects and editing techniques that became important parts of filmmaking and were copied by others.
In 1927, the film Metropolis was released. Directed by Fritz Lang, it was the first science fiction film to be made as a full-length movie. At the time, it was not widely appreciated, but today it is considered one of the greatest films ever made.
In 1954, the film Godzilla was released. Directed by Ishirō Honda, it started a subgenre called "kaiju," which includes movies about large creatures that often attack cities or fight other monsters.
The film 2001: A Space Odyssey was released in 1968. Directed by Stanley Kubrick, it was based on stories by Arthur C. Clarke. This film improved upon earlier science fiction movies by being larger in scale and better in quality. It also influenced many later science fiction films.
The original Planet of the Apes movie was released in 1968. Directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, it was based on the 1963 French novel La Planète des Singes by Pierre Boulle. The film shows a world after a disaster where intelligent apes rule over humans. It was both popular with audiences and praised by critics.
In 1977, George Lucas began the Star Wars series with the film of the same name. This series, often called a space opera, became a global cultural phenomenon and is one of the highest-grossing film series in history.
Since the 1980s, science fiction films, along with fantasy, horror, and superhero films, have been the most common types of big-budget movies made in Hollywood. Science fiction films often mix with other genres. Examples include film noir (Blade Runner, 1982), family (E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, 1982), war (Enemy Mine, 1985; Starship Troopers, 1997), comedy (Spaceballs, 1987; Galaxy Quest, 1999), animation (WALL-E, 2008; Big Hero 6, 2014), Western (Serenity, 2005), action (Edge of Tomorrow, 2014; The Matrix, 1999), adventure (Jupiter Ascending, 2015; Interstellar, 2014), mystery (Minority Report, 2002), thriller (Ex Machina, 2014), drama (Melancholia, 2011; Predestination, 2014), and romance (Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, 2004; Her, 2013).
Television
Science fiction and television have always been closely connected. Television and similar technology often appeared in science fiction stories before television became widely used in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
The first known science fiction television program was a 35-minute part of the play RUR, written by Czech playwright Karel Čapek. It was broadcast live from the BBC's Alexandra Palace studios on February 11, 1938. The first popular science fiction program on American television was Captain Video and His Video Rangers, a children's adventure show that aired from June 1949 to April 1955.
The original The Twilight Zone series, created and narrated by Rod Serling, ran from 1959 to 1964. Serling also wrote or co-wrote most of the episodes. The series included fantasy, suspense, horror, and science fiction, with each episode telling a complete story. Critics have ranked it as one of the best TV programs of any genre.
The animated series The Jetsons, which was meant to be a comedy and only ran for one season (1962–1963), predicted many inventions now in use, such as flat-screen televisions, computer-like screens for newspapers, computer viruses, video chat, tanning beds, and home treadmills.
In 1963, the series Doctor Who premiered on BBC Television with a time-travel theme. The original series ran until 1989 and was revived in 2005. It has been popular worldwide and has greatly influenced later science fiction TV.
Other British science fiction dramas from the 1970s include UFO (1970–1971), The Tomorrow People (1973–1979), Space: 1999 (1975–1977), and Blake's 7 (1978–1981). Notable programs from the 1960s included The Outer Limits (1963–1965), Lost in Space (1965–1968), and The Prisoner (1967–1968).
The original Star Trek series, created by Gene Roddenberry, premiered in 1966 on NBC Television and ran for three seasons. It combined elements of space opera and space Western. At first, it was only mildly successful, but it gained popularity through syndication and fan interest. It became a popular and influential franchise with many films, television shows, books, and other works. The series Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987–1994) led to six additional live-action Star Trek shows: Deep Space Nine (1993–1999), Voyager (1995–2001), Enterprise (2001–2005), Discovery (2017–2024), Picard (2020–2023), and Strange New Worlds (2022–present). Other Star Trek shows are being developed.
The miniseries V premiered in 1983 on NBC. It showed an alien invasion by reptilian creatures. Red Dwarf, a comedy science fiction series, aired on BBC Two from 1988 to 1999 and on Dave since 2009. The X-Files, which focused on UFOs and conspiracy theories, was created by Chris Carter and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company from 1993 to 2002 and again from 2016 to 2018.
Stargate, a film about ancient astronauts and interstellar teleportation, was released in 1994. The series Stargate SG-1 premiered in 1997 and ran for 10 seasons (1997–2007). Other series based on Stargate include Stargate Infinity (2002–2003), Stargate Atlantis (2004–2009), and Stargate Universe (2009–2011).
Other 1990s series included Quantum Leap (1989–1993) and Babylon 5 (1994–1999). The Syfy channel, which began as The Sci-Fi Channel in 1992, focuses on science fiction, supernatural horror, and fantasy.
The space-Western series Firefly premiered in 2002 on Fox. It is set in the year 2517, after humans settle in a new star system, and follows the adventures of a group of renegade crew members on a spaceship called Serenity. The series Orphan Black ran for five seasons starting in 2013 and focused on a woman who takes on the identity of one of her genetically identical clones. In late 2015, Syfy premiered The Expanse, an American show about humanity's colonization of the Solar System. Later seasons of The Expanse were shown on Amazon Prime Video.
Social influence
Science fiction became more popular in the first half of the 20th century because people admired science and saw many new inventions and technological advances. Science fiction stories often imagine future scientific and technological progress. Some stories, like those by Arthur C. Clarke and Star Trek, suggest that progress can improve life and society. Other stories, such as H.G. Wells's The Time Machine and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, warn about possible dangers from such progress.
In 2001, the National Science Foundation studied how people who read science fiction think about science compared to others. The study found that these readers often support space exploration and efforts to contact life on other planets. Carl Sagan, a scientist, said that many scientists who study space were first interested in science because of science fiction.
Science fiction has predicted real inventions, such as the atomic bomb, robots, and borazon. In the 2020 TV show Away, astronauts use a Mars rover called InSight to listen for a landing. In 2022, scientists used InSight for the same purpose in real life.
Science fiction can help people examine how societies interact with others and understand differences in identity. Brian Aldiss called science fiction "cultural wallpaper," meaning it is part of everyday life.
Science fiction is used by writers to share ideas and by teachers in many subjects. George Edgar Slusser said science fiction is a global form of storytelling that has expanded into movies, games, and other media. It also helps connect science and the humanities.
Science fiction has sometimes been used to criticize unfair systems. George Orwell’s 1984 is a famous story about a bad future government. James Cameron’s film Avatar criticized imperialism, like the colonization of the Americas. Stories from Latin America and Spain often explore themes of strong control by leaders.
Robots, artificial humans, clones, and smart computers have been major themes in science fiction since Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Some critics say these themes show writers’ concerns about loneliness in modern society.
Feminist science fiction asks questions about how society defines gender roles, how reproduction shapes gender, and how power is shared between genders. Some stories show worlds where gender differences do not exist or where gender inequalities are worse, showing the need to address these issues.
Climate fiction, or cli-fi, focuses on climate change and global warming. Courses on environmental issues may include cli-fi, and these topics are also discussed in other media.
Libertarian science fiction explores ideas about individual freedom, private property, and limited government. Robert A. Heinlein, a popular author in this style, wrote The Moon is a Harsh Mistress and Stranger in a Strange Land.
Science fiction comedy often makes fun of real-life problems and common ideas in more serious science fiction stories.
Science fiction is said to inspire a sense of wonder. David Hartwell, a science fiction editor, said that science fiction mixes real ideas with amazing possibilities, creating a feeling of amazement.
Carl Sagan wrote that science fiction helps people learn about things they might not know, even while doing simple tasks like walking in the snow.
In 1967, Isaac Asimov noted that real life now looks like old science fiction stories. He said that fans felt sad or angry because the amazing ideas of science fiction had become ordinary.
Study
The study of science fiction involves examining, analyzing, and discussing science fiction books, movies, TV shows, online media, fan communities, and fan-created stories. Scholars in this field research science fiction to understand the genre and how it connects to science, technology, politics, other types of stories, and culture in general.
Science fiction studies began around the start of the 20th century. However, it became a formal area of study later, especially after the creation of academic journals such as Extrapolation (1959), Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction (1972), and Science Fiction Studies (1973). In 1970, two groups were formed to focus on science fiction research: the Science Fiction Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation. Since the 1970s, the field has expanded with more journals, groups, conferences, and university programs that offer degrees in science fiction, such as those at the University of Liverpool.
Science fiction has traditionally been divided into two categories: hard and soft. This division is based on how realistic the science in the story is. However, this classification has been questioned more in recent years. Some authors, like Tade Thompson and Jeff VanderMeer, note that stories focusing on physics, astronomy, math, and engineering are often labeled hard science fiction, while stories about biology, sociology, and other social sciences are often called soft science fiction, even if the science in those stories is well-researched.
Max Gladstone described hard science fiction as stories where the math is accurate. However, he noted that this definition can make stories seem outdated because scientific ideas change over time. Michael Swanwick rejected the traditional idea of hard science fiction, instead saying it is defined by characters who try to solve problems with effort, determination, and the understanding that the universe may not support their goals.
Ursula K. Le Guin criticized the traditional hard-soft distinction, explaining that hard science fiction writers often focus only on physics, astronomy, and chemistry, while ignoring biology, sociology, and anthropology. She emphasized that she is interested in human behavior and draws heavily from social sciences in her work.
Some critics still question whether science fiction and other genre stories have literary value. However, some well-known authors have written works that are sometimes classified as science fiction. Mary Shelley, a famous writer, wrote Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818), which is considered a scientific romance in the Gothic tradition. Kurt Vonnegut, a respected American author, wrote books that some people argue contain science fiction themes.
Other science fiction writers whose works are widely seen as serious literature include Ray Bradbury (Fahrenheit 451, The Martian Chronicles), Arthur C. Clarke (Childhood's End), and Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger (writing under the name Cordwainer Smith). Doris Lessing, who later won the Nobel Prize in Literature, wrote five science fiction novels titled Canopus in Argos: Archives (1979–1983), which explore how advanced civilizations influence less advanced ones, including humans on Earth.
David Barnett noted that some books use common science fiction themes but are not labeled as science fiction by their authors or publishers. These include The Road (2006) by Cormac McCarthy, Cloud Atlas (2004) by David Mitchell, The Gone-Away World (2008) by Nick Harkaway, The Stone Gods (2007) by Jeanette Winterson, and Oryx and Crake (2003) by Margaret Atwood. Atwood argued that works like The Handmaid's Tale should not be called science fiction but instead labeled speculative fiction. She criticized science fiction as "talking squids in outer space."
In his book The Western Canon, literary critic Harold Bloom included Brave New World, Stanisław Lem’s Solaris, Kurt Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle, and The Left Hand of Darkness as important works of Western literature. However, Lem refused to be labeled a science fiction writer.
In her 1976 essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown," Ursula K. Le Guin was asked, "Can a science fiction writer write a novel?" She answered that all novels focus on characters and that great novelists use characters to show readers what they want them to see.
Orson Scott Card is best known for his 1985 science fiction novel Ender's Game. He argued that science fiction stories can contain their own messages and ideas without needing traditional literary techniques, which he called gimmicks or games.
In 1998, Jonathan Lethem wrote an essay titled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction" in The Village Voice. He recalled that in 1973, Thomas Pynchon’s novel Gravity's Rainbow was nominated for the Nebula Award but lost to Arthur C. Clarke’s Rendezvous with Rama. Lethem suggested this moment marked the end of hopes that science fiction would join mainstream literature. In the same year, science fiction writer and physicist Gregory Benford wrote that "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the twentieth century, although its conquering armies are still camped outside the Rome of the literary citadels."
Community
Science fiction has been written by people from many different cultures and places around the world. According to statistics from 2013, 78% of books published by Tor Books, a science fiction publisher, were written by men, and 22% were written by women. In 2015, a debate about how awards were voted on for the Hugo Awards showed a disagreement in the science fiction community. Some people wanted more awards to go to works and authors from diverse backgrounds, while others preferred stories that followed more traditional science fiction styles.
Some of the most important science fiction awards include the Hugo Award, given by the World Science Fiction Society during Worldcon events and voted on by fans; the Nebula Award, given by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America and voted on by writers; the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, judged by a group of writers; and the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for short stories, also judged by a group. A well-known award for science fiction films and TV shows is the Saturn Award, given each year by The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films.
Other awards include Canada’s Prix Aurora Awards, the Endeavour Award for works from the U.S. Pacific Northwest, and awards for specific interests, such as the Chesley Award for art or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines sometimes hold reader polls, such as the Locus Award.
Science fiction conventions, often called “cons” by fans, are held in cities worldwide and are organized for local, regional, national, or international groups. Some conventions cover all areas of science fiction, while others focus on specific interests, like media or music. Most conventions are run by volunteers in non-profit groups, though events focused on media are usually organized by businesses.
Science fiction fandom began with letters in the magazine Amazing Stories. Fans started writing to each other and sharing their thoughts in simple publications called fanzines. Later, they formed local clubs and held the first science fiction conventions in the 1930s.
The earliest online science fiction community was the SF Lovers Community, which started as a mailing list in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, online discussion groups called Usenet expanded the science fiction fan community. In the 1990s, the internet, through websites, helped science fiction fans connect more easily.
The first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago, Illinois. As of 2025, Ansible, edited by David Langford, is one of the most well-known fanzines. Other fanzines that have won Hugo Awards include File 770, Mimosa, and Plokta. Many artists who worked on fanzines have become famous in the field, and the Hugo Awards include a category for Best Fan Artists.
Subgenres
Science fiction is a type of fiction, and within science fiction, there are smaller types called subgenres. Science fiction can be divided in many different ways. Gary K. Wolfe's book Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy lists more than 30 types of science fiction, not including science fantasy, which is a mix of science fiction and fantasy.