A literary device, literary technique, figure of speech, rhetorical device, stylistic device, or trope is an intentional method used by writers or speakers to achieve a specific goal. This goal may include helping the audience focus, guiding their attention, making language or ideas easier to remember, or causing a particular feeling, thought, or reaction. The many names for this concept may have slightly different meanings when used by experts.
Literary devices can be grouped into different types, such as narrative, poetic, or argumentative devices, as well as linguistic patterns or methods unique to certain kinds of writing. However, these devices can be hard to sort into clear groups because many are used in multiple forms of writing and may fit into several categories, such as figurative (non-literal) devices.
Terminology
In literature, a device refers to any deliberate method used in language to achieve a specific effect.
The word "trope" originally described an artistic effect created using figurative language, which means language that is not literal. It also refers to the act of replacing a word or phrase with a less direct one. Over time, the meaning of "trope" has expanded to include common or repeated elements in writing, such as character types, situations, themes, and clichés. The word "trope" comes from the Latin "tropus," meaning "figure of speech," which itself is based on the Greek word "tropos," meaning "a turn" or "a change."
The term "figure of speech," or "figure" for short, has two related meanings. In a general sense, it is another word for any literary device. In academic studies, it specifically includes two categories: tropes and schemes. Tropes involve changing the usual meaning of words, while schemes involve changing the order or arrangement of words. The word "scheme" comes from the Greek "schēma," meaning "form" or "shape." However, in everyday language, the term "figure of speech" often refers only to tropes. In the difference between literal and figurative language, figures of speech or tropes represent the figurative side.
Similarly, the term "rhetorical device" can be a general term for any literary device. However, it more specifically refers to techniques used in persuasive or argumentative language (rhetoric). These devices aim to make an argument more convincing, either emotionally or in other ways, or to encourage an audience to take action.
History
During the Renaissance, scholars carefully listed and grouped literary devices. The term "figure of speech" originated with Renaissance humanists, who used it in its technical sense, influenced by the works of ancient rhetoricians. For example, Henry Peacham, in his book The Garden of Eloquence (1577), listed 184 different figures of speech. Professor Robert DiYanni, in his book Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the Essay, wrote: "Rhetoricians have listed more than 250 different figures of speech, which are ways of using words that do not mean exactly what they say."
Narrative devices
Many literary devices are used to help make stories more interesting and easier to understand. Some examples include:
Poetic and sound-based devices
Sonic language refers to the way poets use sound or help listeners imagine sounds to share ideas in a more complex, fast, or creative way. This is an important part of poetry because it helps audiences understand messages by using how they hear. Here are some examples:
Rhetorical and argumentative devices
Rhetoric is the skill of persuading others through language. Rhetorical devices are specific language techniques used to influence people's thoughts or actions. Historically, these devices are grouped based on what they aim to appeal to: emotions (pathos), logical reasoning (logos), or the speaker's credibility (ethos). In this context, a rhetorical device refers to any technique used at the level of a phrase or sentence. According to literary critic M. H. Abrams, such devices differ from metaphors by focusing on how words are arranged to create effects, rather than changing the meanings of words. They often relate to how new ideas are introduced or how arguments are highlighted in writing or speech.
Classical rhetoricians identified four main categories of rhetorical devices, sometimes called the "quadripita ratio." These categories are still widely used today. The earliest known text mentioning them, though not as a formal system, is the Rhetorica ad Herennium, an anonymous work from ancient times. It lists them as: addition (pleonasmos), omission (endeia), transposition (metathesis), and permutation (enallage). Later, the Roman scholar Quintillian referenced these in his work Institutio Oratoria. Another ancient writer, Philo of Alexandria, described them as addition (prosthesis), subtraction (afairesis), transposition (metathesis), and transmutation (alloiosis).
Figurative language
Figurative language is a way of expressing ideas that is not literal. It often helps create stronger emotions, more detailed meanings, or deeper connections for the audience. American writer Kenneth Burke identified four common types of figurative language—metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony—as the "four master tropes" because they are often used in everyday speech. Examples of figurative language include:
Irony is language that expresses something in a way that is the opposite of what is expected. When someone says the opposite of what they truly mean, it is called verbal irony. When events happen in a way that is the opposite of what people expect, it is called situational irony.
Verbal irony is the simplest form of irony. A speaker says the opposite of what they mean. This can include types like euphemism (using gentle words to describe something difficult), understatement (saying something is less important than it is), sarcasm (using words to express meanness, playfulness, or humor), and accismus (saying you do not want something to show you actually want it). For example, someone might say, "I’m not worthy to receive this honor" after being given an award.
Situational irony happens when events turn out the opposite of what is expected. For example, in the book The Pearl by John Steinbeck, readers might expect Kino and Juana to become happy and successful after finding a valuable pearl. However, their lives get much worse after discovering it.
In Hamlet by William Shakespeare, the main character, Hamlet, almost kills King Claudius but stops because Claudius is praying. Hamlet wants Claudius to go to hell, so he waits. Later, Claudius tells the audience he is not truly praying, meaning Hamlet could have killed him.
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows something important that one or more characters do not. In Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare, the audience knows Juliet is alive during Act V, but Romeo believes she is dead. This creates powerful emotions because the audience understands what Romeo does not.
In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story The Tell-Tale Heart, the audience knows the narrator killed the old man, but the guests do not. This creates tension because the story’s impact depends on the audience knowing something the characters do not.
Schemes
A linguistic scheme is a writing or speaking technique that uses the careful arrangement of words in phrases, sentences, or groups of sentences.
Word repetition is a type of rhetorical device that uses repeated words or phrases in different ways, often to highlight important ideas. Examples include:
Word relation is another type of rhetorical device that creates connections between words in a sentence.
Examples of these techniques include:
– "He caught the train and a bad cold."
– "I held my breath and the door for you."
– "Dumbledore was striding serenely across the room wearing long midnight-blue robes and a perfectly calm expression." — J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix
– "Fred excelled at sports; Harvey at eating; Tom with girls."
– "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears." — William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar 3.2
General linguistic choices
Diction is the careful choice of specific words used by a writer or speaker. These choices help communicate not only meaning but also emotions. When writing, authors think about both the literal meaning of a word (called denotation) and the feelings or ideas it might suggest (called connotation). For example, the words "stubborn" and "tenacious" have similar meanings but different emotional meanings: "stubborn" is often seen as a negative trait, while "tenacious" is usually seen as a positive trait. Similarly, the words "thrifty" and "stingy" describe someone who saves money, but "thrifty" is a compliment and "stingy" is an insult. A writer's word choices are important because they help readers understand the tone, or attitude, of the narrator.
Sentences can vary in length and structure. They can be written in active or passive voice and can be simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. Sentences may also use special techniques, such as inversion, or include structures like appositive phrases, verbal phrases (such as gerunds, participles, and infinitives), and subordinate clauses (such as noun, adjective, and adverb clauses). These tools help writers achieve their goals in writing.
An example is the sentence, "The ghetto was ruled by neither German nor Jew; it was ruled by delusion," from the book Night by Elie Wiesel. In this sentence, Wiesel uses two similar parts of the sentence written in the passive voice. The first part creates curiosity about who rules the ghetto, and the second part builds suspense by leading the reader to expect an answer, which is finally revealed in the last word of the sentence.
Verbs show actions or states of being in a sentence. In English, verbs can be changed in many ways, such as through tense, aspect, and mood. Tense tells when an action happens: past, present, or future. Aspect describes how the action happens over time and includes simple, perfect, and progressive forms. The perfect and progressive aspects focus not only on time but also on how the action changes or continues. Moods (also called modes) describe the type of statement being made. Common moods include the indicative mood (used for regular statements), imperative mood (used for commands), and interrogative mood (used for questions). Other moods include affirmative, negative, emphatic, conditional, and subjunctive.